The area between the arc and chord of a circle is called Hosichun whose figure looks like a bow and an arrow, and had been evaluated by the two formulas $\textit{H}_{n1}$=a(a＋y)/2 and $\textit{H}_{n2}$=3ay/4, where $\alpha$ is the length of the arrow and y the chord of the circle. By the inspection of the area of the Hosichun, some errors of the numeration table in Thurmans S. Peterson's CALCULUS were found easily, that is, the area of the Hosichun is smaller than its subarea in the same Hosichun and perhaps has been to be the worldwide and centurial invalid standard. From now on, the chain proofreadings of the errors will be necessary in our mathematical world. This paper is intended to introduce some such problems related to a circle and another Pythagorean Theorem which is the ratio of the side and diagonal of five and seven In a square.

It will be described the discovery of fundamental algebras such as complex numbers and the quaternions. Cardano(1539) was the first to introduce special types of complex numbers such as 5$\pm$$\sqrt{-15}$. Girald called the number a$\pm$$\sqrt{-b}$ solutions impossible. The term imaginary numbers was introduced by Descartes(1629) in “Discours la methode, La geometrie.” Euler knew the geometrical representation of complex numbers by points in a plane. Geometrical definitions of the addition and multiplication of complex numbers conceiving as directed line segments in a plane were given by Gauss in 1831. The expression “complex numbers” seems to be Gauss. Hamilton(1843) defined the complex numbers as paire of real numbers subject to conventional rules of addition and multiplication. Cauchy(1874) interpreted the complex numbers as residue classes of polynomials in R[x] modulo $x^2$＋1. Sophus Lie(1880) introduced commutators [a, b] by the way expressing infinitesimal transformation as differential operations. In this paper, it will be studied general quaternion algebras to finding of algebraic structure in Algebras.

This paper explains methods of numerical analysis which appear on Cardano's Ars Magna and Newton's Principia. Cardano's method is secant method, but its actual al]plication is severely limited by technical difficulties. Newton's method is what nowadays called Newton-Raphson's method. But mysteriously, Newton's explanation had been forgotten for two hundred years, until Adams rediscovered it. Newton had even explained finding the root using the second degree Taylor's polynomial, which shows Newton's greatness.

In this paper, we explore development of mathematical knowledge, especially calculus, non-Euclidean geometry, Euler's theorem, and the comparison of the number of elements in two infinite sets. And we analyze kinds of errors and the roles for errors with respect to increasing knowledge in mathematics.

The present paper aims to show basic substitution between metaphysics and mathematical abstraction in the philosophy of mathematics. The general troths of metaphysics and the truths particularly relevant to tile nature of mathematical abstraction serve as speculative guides in ordering the content and discussing the nature of the multiple questions which lie between the disputed frontiers of metaphysics and mathematical abstraction.

This paper investigates a history of Fourier Series for the heat equation and how deeply it is related to modern famous three equations, Navier-Stokes equations in fluid dynamics, drift-diffusion equations in semiconductor, and Black-Scholes equation in finance. We also propose improved models for the heat equation with finite propagation speeds.

In this paper we investigate an origin and development of the classical theory of probability. And we also investigate the law of large numbers and central limit theorem which are very important in tile probability theory.

G$\ddot{o}$del's metamathematical program from Incompleteness to Speed-up theorems shows the necessity of ever higher systems beyond the fixed formal system and devises the relative consistency.

We investigate a history of reseahches of a nonlinear elliptic equation with jumping nonlinearity, under Dirichlet boundary condition. The investigation will be focussed on the researches by topological methods. We also add recent researches, relations between multiplicity of solutions and source terms of tile equation when the nonlinearity crosses two eigenvalues and the source term is generated by three eigenfunctions.