• 한국노년학
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• v.39 no.3
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• pp.589-612
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• 2019

Korea has undergone rapid modernization and globalization process in the last few decades. The purpose of this study is to explore how shifting traditional values are impacting Korean elderlies and their perceptions of aging experience. In order to understand how changing social and cultural practices are affecting older adults, the similarities and differences among Korean elderlies living in three different geographical locations are examined in a multidimensional comparative framework. Life story interviews were conducted with 30 Korean elderlies (10 urban residents in Korea, 10 rural residents in Korea, and 10 residents in the US). Paying attention to within-group variation, this study particularly focused on analyzing the psychological, social, emotional, and spiritual experiences that made lives meaningful and resilient in old age in spite of physical decline. Based on analysis of narrative, the following major areas were identified as having positive or negative influence on aging experiences: physical health, emotional health, family relationship, work, leisure/social activity, and spirituality. Common themes of aging well across all settings included: "life not indebted to their offspring," "physical and mental health," and "dying well." Spirituality played a critical role in cultivating perspectives on life and accepting aging process, which were rooted in specific religious traditions participants identified (e.g., Christianity or Buddhism). Interesting differences in the meaning of work and leisure were also found between elderlies residing in Korea and the US immigrant context. One unique factor continuing to negatively affect Korean elderly in rural community was related to shame of not obtaining higher education. Implications for future research are also addressed.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.31 no.4
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• pp.409-419
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• 2017

Although Korean red pine (Pinus densiflora) forests near temples are valuable as forests of the cultural landscape, they are likely to be deteriorated because of vegetation succession and climate changes. The purpose of this study is to investigate the vegetation structure, the pine vitality, and the site environmental characteristics of the pine forests near temples to identify the correlation between pine tree growth and location environment. We selected Chuneunsa, Wonhyosa, Jeungsimsa, and Taeansa Temples since these four areas still had the healthy pine forests. In all four studied area, the pine trees dominate the canopy layers while the deciduous broadleaf trees mostly inhabited appeared in the lower layers. The growth of pine trees in Jeungsimsa and Wonhyosa areas was not as good as Chuneunsa area where the pine trees tended to be older. We found higher total nitrogen content in soil in Jeungsimsa area than other areas, maybe because of increase in total nitrogen caused by the development of low vegetation in the area. This peculiarity may have led to the pine trees in the area to fall behind the deciduous broadleaf trees in competition for nitrogen nutrient and thus to show deteriorated growth. The altitude and the twig length showed a negative correlation as did the degree of slope and the mean importance percentage of the pine tree. In other words, the growth environment such as soil became poorer when the altitude and the degree of slope increased, and thus the growth amount and dominance of the pine trees were lower. The degree of slope showed a positive correlation with the twig length of the pine tree. Within boundaries of location environment where the pine tree forests were dominant, it seemed that growth of the pine trees was more favorable as the slope was steeper because the trees could avoid competition with deciduous broadleaf trees. On the other hand, the growth of pine trees deteriorated as the electrical conductivity of soil increased; increase in soil nutrients might have accelerated vegetation development of deciduous broadleaf trees and thus aggravated the growth environment of pine trees to negatively affect maintaining the health of the pine tree forests.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.104 no.3
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• pp.360-367
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• 2015

The present study investigated the habitats of Korean fir trees (Abies koreana E. H. Wilson) on Mt. Baekwun (Baekwun-san), determined the current distribution, quantified the contribution of biological and non-biological environmental factors affecting the distribution, derived actual and potential habitats, presented a plan for the establishment of protected areas, applied RCP 8.5 climate change scenario to analyze the effects of climate change on the future distribution of Korean fir trees, and predicted future potential habitats. According to the results of the study, 3,325 Korean fir trees (DBH >= 2.5 cm) inhabited Mt. Baekwun, and their distribution area was approximately 150 ha. Populations of Korean fir trees were confirmed to exist at an altitude of 900 m above sea level and were distributed up to 1,200 m. Based on potential distribution, areas appropriate for habitation by Korean fir trees were analyzed to be 450 ha, three times the current distribution area, with a focus on Sang Peak (Sang-bong), Eokbul Peak (Eokbul-bong), Ddari Peak (Ddari-bong), and Dosol Peak (Dosol-bong). The forest stands near Sang Peak, the main peak, were evaluated as those with the most appropriate potential for the habitation of Korean fir trees, and populations of the trees tended to prefer the northern slope rather than the southern slope. When climate change scenario RCP 8.5 was applied and future potential distribution was analyzed, the habitats were expected to decrease in area to 20 ha by 2050, with a focus on Sang Peak, and areas appropriate for habitation were predicted not to exist by 2080. Judging from such results, as global warming accelerates, the habitats of Korean fir trees are clearly expected to move from lowlands to highlands.

• Journal of Agricultural Extension & Community Development
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• v.20 no.3
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• pp.777-822
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• 2013

This study attempts to elicit the organizational strategy and operational elements of community-based agricultural management bodies as new main farm management. We analyzed the newest discussion trend, cooperated community management, between Republic of Korea and Japan based on theory of organizing regional agriculture, and also researched on the organization management and business management about cooperated management of community. In this study, the main conclusion of the organizational strategy and operational elements of community-based agricultural management bodies are as following. i) The community-based agricultural management bodies is the cooperation managed individual agriculture resources as joint stock for purposing compound goal, an expansion agricultural income, maintenance farm productivity and rural societies. ii) The domain of cooperative management focus on secondary and tertiary industry like food process, farm produce distribution, rural experience more than farm produce production. The study suggest business promotion system of village unit farmers groups, element of organization management as executive decision organization, business management, operating factor for each steps and management element of cooperation farm working. iii) The policy direction for invigoration community-based agricultural management bodies is to make facilitation for each steps instead of standardized support.

• Journal of the Korean Geographical Society
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• v.31 no.3
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• pp.593-612
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• 1996

This study concern with the changes of street from the Choseon Dynasty to present days around Old-Boundary in Taegu, analyzing the backgrounds of change factors and development trends of the Taegu City. The basis element of a city structure is the street. Therefore, in this study, a chage of street space of a city was investigted. Historically, Taegu was a walled city and had a Mono-nucleus which was restricted by the castle, and served as a starting point of formation of spatial structuure. The form of the artery street took a "T" pattern, othe streets were formed in irregular shapes. As the city grew gradually, the castle was removed on account of diversification in traffic network, change of socio-economic organization in traffic network, change of socio-economic organization, formation of industrial bases and functional distribution. CBD of this city has been located within the area surrounded by these streets. This is a kind of general pattern of traditional walled cities through the world in both Western and Oriental societies. A s the begining of this centry, a 'Dark Ages' descended upon Korea because the country was under the Japanese-Korean Annexation, and, throughout this period, the urban planning was planned exclusively for Japanese. The street pattern within residential areas of Korea took the maze type, in contrast with Japanese residential areas which showed grid pattern of streets. This is another general pattern of almost of all colonial cities especially in Asia. High class residential areas were planned and built by Japanese, and they were located within 5-10 minutes' on-foot distance from the CBD hard core. This high prestige has continued until the 1980s when it occurred land use succession which commerical functions invaded into residential areas. Back in the colonial period, there was a between two hetrogeneous groups due to the fact that the Japanese lived mainly oriented the new railway system but that Koreans still lived along the old highway system which ran through the Korea Peninsula. Street netwook formed in the above process has maintained its shape without great changes after the liberation form the Japanese Colony. Taegu has, accordingly, developed ring-radial network system which has been a combination of radial and ring facilities. The present conditions of street patterns in Taegy mainly depend on 4 rings and 8 radius, with grid pattern street able to be found in Old Boundary.

• Korean Journal of Agricultural and Forest Meteorology
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• v.21 no.1
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• pp.1-28
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• 2019

This study analyzed the density and mortality rate of Korean fir at 9 sites where individuals of Korean firs were marked into the live and dead trees with coordinates on orthorectified aerial images by digital photogrammetric system. As a result of the analysis, Korean fir in each site showed considerable heterogeneity in density and mortality rate depending on the location within site. This make it possible to assume that death of Korean fir can occur by specific factors that vary depending on the location. Based on the analyzed densities and mortality rates of Korea fir, we investigated the correlation between topographic factors such as altitude, terrain slope, drainage network, solar radiation, aspect and the death of Korean fir. The density of Korean fir increases with altitude, and the mortality rate also increases. A negative correlation is found between the terrain slope and the mortality rate, and the mortality rate is higher in the gentle slope where the drainage network is less developed. In addition, it is recognized that depending on the aspect, the mortality rate varies greatly, and the mean solar radiation is higher in live Korean fir-dominant area than in dead Korean fir-dominant area. Overall, the mortality rate of Korean fir in Mt. Halla area is relatively higher in areas with relatively low terrain slope and low solar radiation. Considering the results of previous studies that the terrain slope has a strong negative correlation with soil moisture and the relationship between solar radiation and evaporation, these results lead us to infer that excess soil moisture is the cause of Korean fir mortality. These inferences are supported by a series of climate change phenomena such as precipitation increase, evaporation decrease, and reduced sunshine duration in the Korean peninsula including Jeju Island, increase in mortality rate along with increased precipitation according to the elevation of Mt. Halla and the vegetation change in the mountain. It is expected that the spatial patterns in the density and mortality rate of Korean fir, which are controlled by topography such as altitude, slope, aspect, solar radiation, drainage network, can be used as spatial variables in future numerical modeling studies on the death or decline of Korean fir. In addition, the method of forest distribution survey using the orthorectified aerial images can be widely used as a numerical monitoring technique in long - term vegetation change research.

• KDI Journal of Economic Policy
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• v.12 no.3
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• pp.27-45
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• 1990

Two opposing views prevail regarding the economic impact of rural out-migration on the rural areas of origin. The optimistic neoclassical view argues that rapid rural out-migration is not detrimental to the income and welfare of the rural areas of origin, whereas Lipton (1980) argues the opposite. We developed our own alternative model for rural to urban migration, appropriate for rapidly developing economies such as Korea's. This model, which adopts international trade theories of nontraded goods and Dutch Disease to rural to urban migration issues, argues that rural to urban migration is caused mainly by two factors: first, the unprofitability of farming, and second, the decrease in demand for rural nontraded goods and the increase in demand for urban nontraded goods. The unprofitability of farming is caused by the increase in rural wages, which is induced by increasing urban wages in booming urban manufacturing sectors, and by the fact that the cost increases in farming cannot be shifted to consumers, because farm prices are fixed worldwide and because the income demand elasticity for farm products is very low. The demand for nontraded goods decreases in rural and increases in urban areas because population density and income in urban areas increase sharply, while those in rural areas decrease sharply, due to rapid rural to urban migration. Given that the market structure for nontraded goods-namely, service sectors including educational and health facilities-is mostly in monopolistically competitive, and that the demand for nontraded goods comes only from local sources, the urban service sector enjoys economies of scale, and can thus offer services at cheaper prices and in greater variety, whereas the rural service sector cannot enjoy the advantages offered by scale economies. Our view concerning the economic impact of rural to urban migration on rural areas of origin agrees with Lipton's pessimistic view that rural out-migration is detrimental to the income and welfare of rural areas. However, our reasons for the reduction of rural income are different from those in Lipton's model. Lipton argued that rural income and welfare deteriorate mainly because of a shortage of human capital, younger workers and talent resulting from selective rural out-migration. Instead, we believe that rural income declines, first, because a rapid rural-urban migration creates a further shortage of farm labor supplies and increases rural wages, and thus reduces further the profitability of farming and, second, because a rapid rural-urban migration causes a further decline of the rural service sectors. Empirical tests of our major hypotheses using Korean census data from 1966, 1970, 1975, 1980 and 1985 support our own model much more than the neoclassical or Lipton's models. A kun (county) with a large out-migration had a smaller proportion of younger working aged people in the population, and a smaller proportion of highly educated workers. But the productivity of farm workers, measured in terms of fall crops (rice) purchased by the government per farmer or per hectare of irrigated land, did not decline despite the loss of these youths and of human capital. The kun having had a large out-migration had a larger proportion of the population in the farm sector and a smaller proportion in the service sector. The kun having had a large out-migration also had a lower income measured in terms of the proportion of households receiving welfare payments or the amount of provincial taxes paid per household. The lower incomes of these kuns might explain why the kuns that experienced a large out-migration had difficulty in mechanizing farming. Our policy suggestions based on the tests of the currently prevailing hypotheses are as follows: 1) The main cause of farming difficulties is not a lack of human capital, but the in­crease in production costs due to rural wage increases combined with depressed farm output prices. Therefore, a more effective way of helping farm economies is by increasing farm output prices. However, we are not sure whether an increase in farm output prices is desirable in terms of efficiency. 2) It might be worthwhile to attempt to increase the size of farmland holdings per farm household so that the mechanization of farming can be achieved more easily. 3) A kun with large out-migration suffers a deterioration in income and welfare. Therefore, the government should provide a form of subsidization similar to the adjustment assistance provided for international trade. This assistance should not be related to the level of farm output. Otherwise, there is a possibility that we might encourage farm production which would not be profitable in the absence of subsidies. 4) Government intervention in agricultural research and its dissemination, and large-scale social overhead projects in rural areas, carried out by the Korean government, might be desirable from both efficiency and equity points of view. Government interventions in research are justified because of the problems associated with the appropriation of knowledge, and government actions on large-scale projects are justified because they required collective action.

• Journal of the Korean Geographical Society
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• v.47 no.4
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• pp.522-540
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• 2012

The main aim of the paper is to identify the position or status of Korean economic geography in changing global economic geography by reviewing papers published in Korean geographical journals since the mid-1950s. Since the late 20th century as economic geography has developed significantly with the introduction of new research issues, methodologies, and theory and concepts, economic geography in Korea also has gone through rapid development in terms of both quantitative and qualitative perspectives. The paper attempts to analyze trends in Korean economic geography by reviewing agricultural, industrial, commercial geographies, and others since the mid-1950s. The review of economic geography in Korea would be based on four periods classified by research issues and approaches; foundation (~1950s), positioning (1960s and 1970s), jump and rush (1980s and mid-1990s), and transitional period (late 1990s~). Agricultural geography in Korea has decreased due to increases of the interests in industrial geography since the 1980s. In particular, since the late 1990s industrial geography has undergone a significant transition in accordance with the emergence of new theories of institutional perspectives, centering around issues on value chains, innovative cluster, cooperative and competitive networks, foreign direct investment, flexible specialization and venture ecology. Along with this, there has been changes in the interest of commercial geography in Korea from researches on periodical markets, the structure of store formats, and distributions by commodity, to researches on producer services and retailer's locational behaviors and commercial supremacy according to the emergence of new store formats. Since the late 1990s, many researches and discussions associated with the new economic geography began to emerge in Korea. Various research issues are focused on analyzing changes of local, regional and global economic spaces and their processes in relation to institutional perspectives, knowledge and innovation, production chain and innovative networks, industrial clusters and RIS, and geographies of service. Although economic geography in Korea has developed significantly both in quantitative and qualitative perspectives, we pointed out that it has still limited in some specific scope and issues. Therefore, it is likely to imply that its scope and issues should be diversified with new perspectives and approaches.

• Asia-Pacific Journal of Business Venturing and Entrepreneurship
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• v.14 no.6
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• pp.59-76
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• 2019

Most technology-based entrepreneurship(TBE) go through an process of decline or disappear without overcoming the valley of death(VoD). The purpose of this study is to identify the growth dimension of TBE and to test the influence of firms activities on firms growth over time. This study identified the two-dimensional growth dimension divided by size and profit through exploratory factor analysis(EFA) of a number of growth indicators. Then, we defined the discrete state of growth firm in four states, divided by size and profit, and five states, including the closure of business. Multi-nomial logit model is used to predict the effect of TBE activities on a discrete state of growth firm(size×profit, closure of business) based on multiple independent variables. The independent variables are based on five representative firms activities: employment, marketing, R&D, financial activities, and general management activities. The growth stage of TBE over time has been categorized into three stages: early stage, middle stage, and late stage of business, taking into account the main periods during which the survival rate of startups sharply decreases. The analytical data of this study was based on the secondary data of the start-up supporting companies of government and public institutions. The subjects of analysis were TBE within 10 years. As a result of the empirical analysis, the employment and marketing activities of TBE show that early and mid-term activities had an effect on the state of firms growth. However, if there is a difference, employment activities have both positive and negative effects, while marketing activities have only a positive effect on size and profit growth. And besides, R&D activities, financial activities, and general management activities throughout the entire process of firms growth were found to be firms activities that have both positive and negative effects on firms growth. In addition, the age of the founder, the firms' industry, and the geographic location of the firms, which are general characteristics of the company, were found to have a distinctive effect on the growth status of the firms according to the growth stage.

• Journal of the Korean Geographical Society
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• v.29 no.3
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• pp.297-317
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• 1994

This study demonstrates the changes in the spatial organization of Korea by the construction of Seoul-Pusan railroad. This Seoul-Pusan line, which is the most important one in Korea was constructed in 1905. The original plan of the line was selected to cross the main traditional roads to control the entire Korean peninsular and to mobilize the Korean commercial potentials. It was the line to exploit the staples and to expand the Japanese market in Korea. In accordance with the contracts between Japan and Korean government, Korean government had to supply the lands for railroad, office, and service facilities. That was one of the important reasons that Korean government had been broken down. The main findings of this study are as follows: 1. The Seoul-Pusan railroad line was constructed Japanese colonial policy which emphasized three main purposes; the first was to reorganize the economic space and to collapse the traditional Korean markets for Japanese ruling, and the second was to find out the military supply routes, and the third was to search for the transcontinental line for China and Siberia. As the results, the old Korean pedestrian routes, which were the Eastern, the mid, the westren, and the Samnam route lost their functions. 2. Japanese requested for Korean government usually ten times of wider space for the site of stations than the needed one. The land was expropriated, and constructed the new centers aparted from the original Korean towns. In this process Japanese got the most developmental and windfall profits. The newly constructed centers were for Japanese immigration and the town service facilities which would be used to control the Korean financial market. At last, they easily converted the Korean spatial economy into Japanese colonial one, which made to reinforce the sphere of Seoul-Pusan line. 3. Japanese planned the stations as the central points in Korea. So the railroad stations were located apart from the centers of towns, to avoid the Korean resistances, and to maximize their profits. The mean distance from staiton to 'the town center is about 1km while the Japanese case is 0.6km. 4. The pattern of present Korean railroads is not the 'X type'. Because the Honam line is not the trunk one. So, we could call the Korean railroad pattern as the 'Ip(Chinese character 入) type' . The operational effects of Seoul-Pusan line brought out the concentration of the national economy to this line as Japanese planned. And the polorization had occurred between this line and the other parts of Korea. For twenty years (1910-1930), the transported freights were increased about 5 times. In 1930, the total freight of Seoul-Pusan line became 2, 010, 444 metric tons. If we examine this process, the underconstructing Seoul-Pusan express electric railroad should avoid adjacent this line to reduce the regional and ecological imbalance. 5. The forms of centers on the Seoul-Pusan line were classified into six types in relation to station, town center, and built-up area; the compact (integrated) type, the elongated one, the splited (independent) one, the absorbed one, the consolidated one, and the declined one. All types of these towns might be developed in accordance with the centrality, railroad function, and the other transportational functions. 6. The Seoul-Pusan line plays the most important role among Korean railroads but the ratio of passenger and freight become lower because the effiects of other inaugurated railoads the different transportation modes such as trucks and cars would be got more merits in competition. 7. The results of cluster analyses on the cities of railroad stations showed the rudimentary urban systems in 1910 and 1930. In 1930, the cities were classified into three groups; the group of small cites, the intermediate (developing) city-group, and the special city-group. In 1930s the spatial organization and urban system of Korea were similar to the present ones. We call appreciate that these were the effects of the Seoul-Pusan line.