• Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health
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• v.21 no.1 s.23
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• pp.163-171
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• 1988

The paralytic shellfish poisoning was occurred among 25 laborers who worked at breaking-up of ships in Pusan for 5 days from March 29 to April 2 of 1956. For the purpose of accurately defining the paralytic shellfish poison(PSP) , the authors carried out mouse bioassay and chemical analysis. The results were summarized as follows: 1. The mean amount of Paralytic shellfish toxin was $1,207.8{\mu}g$ Per 100gm meat, and the mean death time of mouse was 5 minutes 16 second. 2. The properties of the PSP were mainly gonyautoxin group by chemical analysis(TLC, IR, $^{1}H-NMR$).

• Korean Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
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• v.46 no.2
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• pp.154-159
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• 2013

The AOAC Mouse Bioassay method (MBA) has been widely used for routine monitoring of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) for more than 50 years. However, this method has low sensitivity and experiences interference from other components in the extract. Also, ethical issues have been raised against the continued use of this live-mouse assay. To establish an alternative method for PSP analysis, we attempted to develop PSP analysis conditions using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The LC-MS/MS analysis of reference material showed very reasonable accuracy, and the analysis time was just 15 min. However, the recovery rate of toxin spike samples using the LC-MS/MS analysis was 59.4-91.0%. We also attempted to remove the matrix effect using shellfish extracts, but recoveries of C1 and C2 did not improve. A comparison between the results of MBA and LC-MS/MS analysis revealed good correlations, with values of 0.8878 and 0.9211 for oyster and mussel matrices, respectively.

• Journal of Food Hygiene and Safety
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• v.14 no.3
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• pp.265-269
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• 1999

Paralytic shellfish poison threatens public health most seriously from April to early May every year and gives adverse effects on export of these products. Major shellfish products exported were canned oyster, Crassostrea gigas and blue mussel, Mytilus edulis. Toxicities of canned shellfishes with toxin of low levels were mostly inactivated during the processing; in contrast, residual toxicity was of great concern with canned products from highly toxic shellfishes. This study was to provide basic data to establish food safety measure by evaluating the changes of toxicity during 2 year storage of canned products with toxic blue mussel and oyster. Any significant difference was not observed between two samples. Boiled can and smoked can showed inactivation of toxicity to some extent, whereas acidified can did not show reduction of toxicity even after 2 year storage. In case the initial toxicity of shellfish was high long term storage could not inactivate the toxicity of the canned product.

• Korean Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
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• v.50 no.6
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• pp.669-674
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• 2017

Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are produced by marine dinoflagellate phytoplankton Alexandrium spp. and Gymnodinium spp. These toxins accumulate in filter feeding organisms such as bivalves and the ingestion of contaminated shellfish can cause illness in humans. The mouse bioassay (MBA) has been the preferred PST testing method worldwide for more than 50 years. However, this assay has several disadvantages, such as detection limits, non-toxic-profiles, and the ethical issues of using animals. The aim of this study was to establish an alternative to the MBA method for testing for PSTs. We optimized the analysis conditions of a post-column oxidation-high performance liquid chromatography (PCOX-HPLC) method and the Scotia Rapid Test Kit, and then compared the accuracy of these methods to the MBA method. The results demonstrated a strong correlation between the PCOX-HPLC method and the MBA, although the PCOX-HPLC method required expensive equipment and standard material, and was time consuming. The Scotia Rapid Test Kit promises to be a useful tool, as it provided rapid and qualitative results, although the method sometimes gave a false positive result that could not be explained by toxin profiles.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Marine Environment & Safety
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• v.26 no.1
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• pp.84-92
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• 2020

To supply a stable amount of standard material to detect paralytic shellfish toxin (PST), we examined possible increases in toxic content in Alexandrium catenella and A. pacificum using a light emitting diode (LED), which is one of the most eco-friendly and economical lighting method. When comparing the growth rates of organisms and wavelengths of light used, the half saturation constants (Ks) of red wavelength were higher than those of other wavelengths. In contrast, the Ks of blue wavelength were lower than those of other wavelengths. Moreover, when comparing the toxic contents and wavelengths of light used, red wavelength produced approximately 8 times more toxic content in A. catenella and approximately 3.2 times more toxic content in A. pacificum than other wavelengths. Thus, the toxic content present in the organism might be closely related to the Ks of light. The optimum light source to be used to ensure economically ef ective and productive growth in an Alexandrium culture system (photo-bioreactor) would likely consist of a two-phase culture, wherein a blue LED is used during the lag and exponential phases to increase growth rates, followed by the use of a red LED during late exponential and stationary phases to achieve increased PST yields.

• Journal of Food Hygiene and Safety
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• v.33 no.5
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• pp.404-411
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• 2018

To evaluate bacteriological and toxicological safety hygienic indicator bacterium and paralytic and diarrhetic shellfish toxins in the shellfish produced in Hansan Geojeman 2013-2017 were investigated. Fecal coliforms were < 18~330 MPN/100 g in 404 oyster samples. But all samples tested, did not exceed 230 E. coli MPN/100 g. Geometric mean of E. coli for oyster samples collected during major shellfish production period was 24.3 MPN/100 g, considerde stable results. Bacteriological quality of oysters collected from Hansan Geojeman meets the standard value based on shellfish hygiene of the Food Sanitation Act of Korea and also meets Grade A, according to classification of shellfish harvesting areas of the European Union. For toxicological evaluation of Hansan Geojeman, 532 oyster samples and 268 mussel samples as an indicator, were analyzed. Paralytic shellfish toxins were detected in the range of 0.42~2.29 mg/kg in eight mussel samples, and exceeded criteria in three samples from early to late April 2013. Diarrhetic shellfish toxin was detected in three of 120 samples, but it was revealed to be under regulation value (0.16 mg Okadaic Acid equ./kg). As a result of toxicological evaluation, paralytic and diarrhetic shellfish toxins were not detected in oyster samples, but it was found that mussel as an indicator species, exceeded the threshold value of paralytic shellfish toxin. Accordingly, sanitary surveys were continuously requested for food safety management of shellfish.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Marine Environment & Safety
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• v.27 no.1
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• pp.119-126
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• 2021

In this study, the variability in paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) by the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella (Group I) was analyzed under a variety of water temperatures and salinities. This dinoflagellate experienced optimum growth at temperatures and salinities of 20~30℃ and 20~30 psu, respectively. These findings indicate that A. catenella is an eurythermal and euryhaline organism. High toxin contents and toxicities were observed at low temperatures (10 and 15℃), where they were associated with low growth rates; salinity did not have any significant impact on toxicity parameters. Therefore, it is likely that A. catenaella contributes to the rapid intoxication of commercial bivalve when temperatures are ≤15℃. To better estimate PSP caused by A. catenalla, we suggest that the influence of various environmental factors controlling PSP should persist with other A. catenella stains and commercial bivalves.

• Korean Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
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• v.20 no.4
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• pp.293-299
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• 1987

At various times and places all over the world men have become ill and some have died after eating shellfish that were intoxicated with paralytic shellfish poison(PSP) caused by Protogonyaulax spp. In late March, 1986, two persons were dead by ingesting wild sea mussels, Mytilur edulis, grown at bottom of an anchored waste ship to be dismantled at Gamchun Bay, Pusan, Korea. The samples were collected from the bottom of the ship during April $1\~April$ 8 of the year to find the cause of the food poisoning accident. The toxicity was estimated by bioassay with ICR male mouse, while the toxins were extracted and characterized. The toxins were extracted with acidified $80\%$ ethanol. The extract was defatted three times with dichloromethane, treated with activated charcoal, and then purified by chromatography on Bio-Gel P-2 and Bio-Rex 70. The toxic fractions obtained were analysed by cellulose acetate membrane electrophoresis, thin layer chromatography and high performance liquid chromatogaphy. The range and the average of PSP-toxicity of the samples were $132\~295\;MU/g$, 203 MU/g respectively. The amount of PSP was $26.4\~58.9{\mu}g/g$ of whole meat in range and $40.6{\mu}g/g$ in average. The toxicity of the digestive gland of the samples was 9 times higher than that of edible meat (except digestive gland) as $439\~979MU/g$, and it was about $70\%$ in total toxin. The compositional analytical results of the paralytic shellfish toxin, Gonyautoxin $1\~4$ were the major part of the PSP and Saxitoxin and neosaxitoxin were detected as the minor component. It was concluded that the food poisoning accident was caused not by Saxitoxins but by Gonyautoxins.

• Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
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• v.12 no.3
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• pp.227-235
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• 2009

The marine toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella has been implicated in numerous paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) events in many countries. Due to difficulties in rapidly identifying A. catenella, field-based study of this species has been problematic. The present study developed a TaqMan format A. catenella-specific probe for real-time PCR assay (specific to Korean genotype) based on LSU rDNA sequence information for studying geographic and temporal distribution of the species in surface sediments and water columns of Jinhae Bay, Korea. The field survey from 2007 to 2008 revealed that A. catenella occurred in most seasons at low densities, mostly below 1 cell $mL^{-1}$, and was more abundant in spring (maximum cell density of 2 cells $mL^{-1}$) when shellfish exceed the quarantine toxin level for PSP toxins in Jinhae Bay.

• Journal of Korean Society of Environmental Engineers
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• v.32 no.3
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• pp.248-255
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• 2010

This study was carried out to assess the feasibility of the electron beam irradiation as a mean of red tide control in coastal water. Prorocentrum minimum, Prorocentrum micans, Cochlodinium polykrikoides, Heterosigma akashiwo, Alexnadrium catenella were selected and cultured for experiments, and red tide occurring in Tongyeong(2007. 8. 15) was also tested under the same conditions. The irradiation dose were 1 kGy, 2 kGy, 4 kGy and 8 kGy. The result showed 50~65% extinction in red tide cells was observed right after irradiation dose of 1 kGy and 86~97% within 1 day after irradiation, compared with control. Chlorophyll-a concentration of red tide was reduced by 50~64% immediately and it was drastically reduced up to 86~97% 1 day after irradiation. When the culture was irradiated at 1 kGy, 28~47% of s-protein was released immediately, and 77~138% was released 1day after irradiation. 77~212% of s-carbohydrate was excreted after 1 day while 16~45% of s-carbohydrate was excreted immediately. A transmission electron microscope(TEM) observation for the irradiated red tide revealed that the cell was destroyed and intracellular biopolymeric substance was leached out from the damaged cell as a result of electron beam irradiation. These results imply that electron beam irradiation is enable to control red tide by flocculation with extracellular biopolymer. The paralytic shellfish poisoning(PSP) toxin contents produced by Alexandrium catenella was decreased 48% by 1 kGy of electron beam irradiation compared with the unirradiated cells. As a result, electron beam irradiation was effective for detoxication as well as destruction of red tide.