• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.47 no.3
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• pp.86-107
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• 2014

The large stone cist tomb 8501 of Lingcheng prefecture Xiaoheishigou, according to Chinese chronology, was built during the late Western Zhou period. However in this tomb not only Chinese Zhongyuan style bronze ceremonial vessels but also indigenous style bronze ceremonial vessels and instruments and hybrid bronze ceremonial vessels with a mixture of both indigenous and Chinese styles were excavated in large numbers. The bronze ceremonial vessel assemblage of Xiaoheishigou, in comparison with the decorum regulations and bronze cauldron and coffer system of the Chinese Zhongyuan region of the same time period, belong to that of the lowest status category. However, in contrast to the lowest class category tombs of the Chinese Zhongyuan region, in this tomb, with the exception of cauldrons and coffers, the remaining food and wine vessels of the assemblage match the standard of emperors and feudal rulers of vassal states. This is reinforced by the burial of musical instruments. Of the bronze ceremonial vessels of Xiaoheishigou large stone cist tomb 8501, the indigenous and hybrid styles, in consideration of manufacture technology seem to have been manufactured locally. However, the form, pattern and also the standards of the Western Zhou style bronze ceremonial vessels are identical to those of the Chinese Zhongyuan region and therefore it is clear that they were manufactured in Western Zhou. The reason for these precious ceremonial vessels which were manufactured and used in the many individual vassal states of the Chinese Zhongyuan region being buried in Xiaoheishigou, seems to have been the result of economic exchange and friendly political relations between the Xiaoheishigou and other groups rather than these vessels having been plundered by the Xiaoheishigou group. A distinct cultural sphere existed between the Upper Xiajiadian culture and Western Zhou which interacted frequently with both sides.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.1 no.1 s.1
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• pp.27-39
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• 1992

Metallurgical studies of the bronze artifacts excavated from Miruksa Temple were performed by chemical analysis and metallographic observation. Alloy systems of the bronze artifacts were classified into two groups of Cu-Sn and Cu-Sn-Pb, according to the items. The contents of impurities such as Sb, As, Ni and Fe in bronze artifacts are within the limiting range of the mod ern standard bronze castings. Chemical compositions of the kitchen utensils such as bronze vessels and dishes in the Unified Silla dynasty, are in the follow ing range, Cu : 74.8-79.4% and Sn : 18.6-21.1%. Chemical composition of the Buddha-image in Koryo dynasty are 820Cu-7.0Sn-10.3Pb, showing increased Pb content and decreased Sn content. The results of chemical analysis suggest that the chemical compositions were good controlled. Any casting defects such as voids and shrinkage holes are not found microscopically, indicating high casting skill. Zinc atoms are not contained in the all bronze artifacts of Miruksa Temple site. This is the common facts founded in the east asian bronze artifacts of Korea, China and Japan. It is comparable with the European bronze of Cu-Sn-Pb-Zn system, after the Middle Age.

• Conservation Science in Museum
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• v.2
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• pp.57-68
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• 2000

This study is a scientific analysis of 12 bronze materials which were excavated from Sanoisa temple in Chongju. Analysis of crystalline shape, size and distribution of the each sample metal suggested that they can be classified as tableware(wrought), vessels for memorial service(casting) and bell bronze, which is the same result as classification based on elemental composition. Most of the tableware are forging wares with composition of 8:2:0 in Cu:Sn:Pb, and vessels for memorial service are casting wares whose composition is 7:1:2 in Cu:Sn:Pb, and bell bronze's composition is Cu:Sn:Pb = 85:10:5/9:1:0. The result clearly shows that composition is closely related with usage and manufacturing method of wares. Trace elements such as Co, Fe and As are the elements with high correlation coefficient with Cu, which means they exist as impurities in Cu, and the content of As showed an increase in the order of tableware, memorial service vessels and bell bronze. In addition, the analysis of lead isotope ratio showed that 3 bronze materials with high lead content were made from the lead coming from Japan and China. The composition of the solder was Cu:Sn:Pb = 83:12:5 where small Pb crystals were distributed evenly.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.28 no.2
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• pp.175-184
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• 2012

A purpose of this research is to find out characteristic of bronze artifacts and gold ornaments excavated from Xiongnu tombs No. 2~4 at Duurlig Nars in Mongolia through scientific analysis of them. The Tombs are comparatively small. There were still lots of relics remaining although the tombs had been already robbed. Also the tombs are evaluated important since the origin of them show coexisting of chinese and northern style. First of all, an analysis result about bronze vessels found in this site, they have high lead(Pb) content and relatively low tin(Sn) content, as compared with the Bronze Han Mirror and End-fittings of Bronze Parasol Rib. Especially in case of bronze tray and bronze lamp from the no. 2 tomb and also bronze cauldron from the no. 4 tomb contain only 1wt% of tin which means binary alloy composition(Cu-Pb). Also, in the case of gold ornaments found in the no. 2 tomb, they have comparatively high purity. And the research suppose that the high possibility of that they were used soldering using alloy of Au-Cu or diffused bonding(using malachite and copper oxide) for joining gold grains of gold granulation ornament. Further scientific research and analysis in Mongolia and other countries will provide more clues to solve mystery of Xiongnu culture.

• Korean Journal of Metals and Materials
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• v.46 no.1
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• pp.26-32
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• 2008

Examination of two bronze vessels supposedly from the Koryo dynasty revealed that they consist of bowls and stands that are fixed together using rivet joints made of Cu-Ag alloys. The bowls and stands were forged out of unleaded bronze alloys of approximately 22 weight % Sn before being quenched from the ${\alpha}+{\beta}$ region of the Cu-Sn phase diagram. This specific alloy and the thermo-mechanical treatment constitute two key elements of the unique technical tradition called Bangcha (방짜) that has long been established in Korea. The high Sn content ensures better casting and the thermal treatment causes the brittle ${\delta}$ phase to be avoided in forging as well as in services. The experiment on the laboratory Cu-Ag alloys of varying Ag contents suggested that the Cu-Ag system was the best choice of materials for the rivets at the time in view of their color, availability, ductility and low melting points.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.56 no.1
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• pp.46-61
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• 2023

Various Buddhist metal artifacts were excavated from the Heungjeon-ri Temple site from 2014 to 2020, such as gilt-bronze openwork decorations, a bronze kundika, a lion incense burner with a handle and lion weight, and so on. The gilt-bronze openwork decoration founded from the main hall of the western area is believed to have been used for the decoration of the Buddhist temple, and it is considered to be the best example of the gilt-bronze openwork decorations of the unified Silla that have been discovered so far. The incense burner with a handle and lion weight excavated from Heungjeon-ri Temple site is the earliest example of the style. The bronze kundikas excavated at the Heungjeon-ri Temple site have a more developed style than those of Ingaksa Temple. The bronze bowl and bronze bowl with a lid are similar to those excavated from the Anapji, Hwangryongsa Temple site, and Inwangdong Temple site. So these bronze vessels seem to have spread from the capital city to the provinces. Bronze seals excavated from the Heungjeon-ri Temple site are similar to those of the Hwangnyongsa Temple site in form and font. So, it was considered that they were produced and sent by the royal palace. In addition, "梵雄官衙之印" on the seal can be said to show that Heungjeonri Temple site was related to the organization of the monks at the time. The Buddhist metal artifacts excavated from Heungjeon-ri Temple site are believed to have been used from the early to mid-9th century at the temple by the Seon Order monk who was the main character of the monument. It can be said to be an important example of how the royal palace of Unified Silla and local crafts had a two-way influence, not a one-way influence, from the first half to the middle of the 9th century.

• Proceedings of the Korean Society of Precision Engineering Conference
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• 1996.11a
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• pp.697-701
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• 1996

King Sejong's Striking water-clock which brought in use on the first of July in 1434 was mainly composed of timekeeping and time announcing parts signalling twelve double-hours, and five night-watches and night-watch-divisions automatically by means of ball-operating jackworks. The clock was arranged with dual timekeeping system, the one for a full day(twelve double-hours) and the other for five night-watches achieving twelve double-hours and one-hundred interval horary systems. The vessels were arrayed in inflow-type water-clock, a large reservoir on the highest story, a constant-level tank for supplying water to the measuring vessel evenly in the middle, and the lowest tank to receive water from the above constant-level tank. An indicator-rod on the float was raised upwards depending on the water-level increase to show timing scales and also to release small bronze balls from the ball-rack mechanisms implanted on the measuring vessel to signal timing intervals.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.53 no.4
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• pp.170-187
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• 2020

Dolmens bearing the burial layout and stone coffin tombs of the late Bronze Age were excavated from Samdeok-ri, Goseong, Gyeonsangnsamdo, and grave items such as red-burnished pottery, arrowheads, and stone swords were also discovered. In the case of the red-burnished pottery that was found, it retains a pigment layer with a thickness of about 50 to 160㎛, but with most of the other items, exfoliation and peeling-off of pigment layers can be observed on the surface. The raw materials of the red-burnished pottery contained moderately sorted minerals such as quartz, feldspar, and hornblende, and partly opaque iron oxide minerals were also identified. In particular, the raw materials of the red-burnished pottery from stone coffin tomb #6 were different from those of the other pottery, containing large amounts of hornblende and feldspar. The pottery's red pigment was identified as hematite and showed similar mineral content of raw materials such as fine grained quartz, feldspar, and hornblende. The firing temperature is estimated to have been approximately 900℃, based on their mineral phase. The possibility exists that the raw materials had been collected from the Samdeok-ri area, because diorite and granite diorite with dominant feldspar and hornblende have been identified within 3km of that area. During the pottery manufacturing process, it is estimated that the pigment was painted on the entire surface of the red-burnished pottery after it had been molded and then finished using the abrasion technique. In other words, the red-burnished pottery was made by the process of vessel forming - semi drying - coloring - polishing. The surface and cross-section of the pottery appears differently depending on the concentration of the pigment and the coloring method used after vessels were formed. Most of the excavated pottery features a distinct boundary between pigment and body fabric. However, in the case of pottery in which fine-grained pigments penetrate the body fabric so that layers cannot be distinguished, there is the possibility that the fine-grained pigment layer was applied at a low concentration or immediately after vessel forming. Many cracks can be seen on the surface pigments in thickly painted pottery items, and in many cases, only a small portion of the pigment layers remain due to surface exfoliation and abrasion in the burial environment. It is reported that pottery items may be more easily damaged by abrasion if coated with pigment and polished, so it is believed that the red-burnished pottery of the Samdeok-ri site suffered from weathering in the burial environment. This damage was more extensive in the potsherds that were scattered outside the tomb.

• Bangmulgwan gwa yeongu (The National Museum of Korea Journal)
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• v.1
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• pp.150-173
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• 2024

The Gyeongsang region experienced an epoch-making social transformation approximately around the second to first century BCE, including the replacement of Bronze Age types of tombs (such as dolmens, stone cist tombs, and earthen tombs with flat capstones) with clusters of wooden coffin tombs and the emergence of wajil pottery (soft stoneware) and ironware. These shifts in the archaeological material evidence have been discussed in the context of the formation of the states that comprised the three Han confederacies and in relation to wooden coffin tombs built in later periods. This paper explicates the appearance of clustered wooden coffin tombs with accompanying ironware by categorizing them. In particular, it examines the emergence of wooden coffin tombs by creating the Wolseong-dong type, which differs from Tomb No. 5 in Joyang-dong and Tomb No. 1 in Daho-ri with their deep burial pits and large quantities of prestige goods and soft stoneware items. The Wolseong-dong type of tomb commonly features ironware, including flat-bladed iron axes, oblong cast iron axes, iron wire, iron chisels, and iron swords; a small slender, rectangular wooden coffin tomb with a shallow burial pit of less than sixty centimeters; and pottery of a type preceding soft stoneware, such as long-necked jars, triangular attached-rim pottery bowls and pots, and mounted vessels. There are also a few bronzeware items found in them, but no prestige goods. This study scrutinizes tombs in Tamni-ri in Uiseong, Hagu-ri in Gyeongju, and Hakjeongdong in Daegu by comparing them with the Wolseong-dong type, and it confirms that in Sinseodong in Daegu, Wolseong-dong type tombs and later Joyang-dong type tombs have separate spatial distributions within the site. This also indicates that the Wolseong-dong type is a valid categorization among wooden coffin tombs. Although the rise of the Wolseong-dong type tomb is associated with the migration of a group, I reserve judgement on whether its origins should be understood in the context of the iron culture in the southwestern region of South Korea that was sparked by King Jun's advance to the south or if they lie in the western region of North Korea. Either way, the Wolseong-dong type is thought to be the tombs of a group of people with lower hierarchical status than the occupants of the later Joyang-dong type.