Factors Associated with Job Search Self-Efficacy of Unemployed Youth based on the Neuman Systems Model

청년구직자의 구직효능감에 영향을 미치는 요인 : Neuman의 Systems Model을 기반으로

Abstract

Youth unemployment is a global social issue which leads to a waste of human resources and undermines the national economy. Job search self-efficacy (JSSE) can predict active job search and job search outcomes. The present study identified the factors affecting the JSSE of unemployed youth based on the Neuman Systems Model (NSM). The results indicated that job search period, job search stress, and problem-centred coping ability influenced young job seekers' JSSE, which increased especially with the perception of physical health. Therefore, to promote JSSE, it is necessary to not only establish social systems for the youth but also develop an intervention plan based on the NSM that optimises problem-centred coping ability, a normal line of defence in the individual's system, and maintains a healthy physical state, a line of resistance.

청년실업은 인적자원의 낭비와 국가 경제력 약화 등을 야기하는 전세계적인 경제 이슈이다. 구직효능감을 통해 적극적인 구직활동과 구직성과를 예측할 수 있다. 이에 본 연구에서는 Neuman의 systems model을 근거로 청년실업자의 구직효능감에 영향을 미치는 요인을 확인하였다. 연구 결과, 청년구직자의 구직효능감에는 구직기간, 취업스트레스, 문제중심대처능력 등이 영향을 주고 있었으며, 특히 신체적으로 건강하다고 인지할수록 구직에 대한 효능감이 높게 나타났다. 따라서 청년구직자의 구직효능감을 증진하기 위해서는 청년들을 위한 사회적 제도 마련 뿐만 아니라, systems model에 기반하여 개인 체계 내에서의 정상방어선인 문제중심 대처능력을 최적화하고 저항선인 신체적 건강상태를 최상으로 유지할 수 있는 중재방안을 모색하는 것이 필요하리라 본다.

Ⅰ. Introduction

Youth unemployment due to lack of job opportunities caused by changes in population and prolonged economic recession is a key social issue not only in South Korea but also worldwide. Youth unemployment (15–24 years of age) as of 2018 was reported to be 11.9% among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries and 10.5% in South Korea [1]. Unemployment among the youth in particular is a common problem among OECD countries, including South Korea, where youth unemployment rate is more than double the total unemployment rate (5.3% and 3.8%, respectively)[1]. Searching for and choosing a job is an essential developmental task for youth, and it not only has economic benefits but also signifies that they have established emotional independence, social adjustment, and self-identity[2-4]. Therefore, youth unemployment is a serious problem that undermines the psychological, physical, economic, and social wellbeing of individuals, in addition to wasting human resources and diminishing the growth potential of the nation [5][6]. Therefore, to address this problem and increase youth employment rate, both changes in educational and economic policies and research on measures to promote youth employment are crucial.

Multiple factors that influence job search, including job search intention, job search attitude, and job search channels, are currently being studied to improve the effectiveness of youth employment programs and policies [7-11]. In particular, many studies have paid attention to JSSE, which refers to one’s belief that one can successfully engage in activities to obtain a desired job[12][13]. JSSE contributes to boosting employment performance; higher JSSE was found to be associated with higher frequency of job search behaviours, lower employment anxiety, higher confidence in job search, and higher employment[14-16]. JSSE is influenced by various demographic and psychosocial variables, such as age[17], sex[18], job search experience[19], person-major fit[20], character[21], social support[19], and self-esteem[22].

The NSM is a nursing theory based on an individual’s relationship to stress, his or her reaction to it, and reconstitution factors [23]. The NSM assumes that humans are an open system interacting with a stressful environment and ensuring that harmony and balance are maintained through virtual lines of defence that surround them[24][25]. These lines of defence are divided into flexible lines of defence, normal lines of defence, and lines of resistance; each line involves physical, psychological, socio-cultural, developmental, and spiritual variables. The flexible line of defence maintains an individual’s normal balance, keeps the system away from stressors, and prevents stressors from affecting the human system[25]. Specifically, perceived social support as a socio-cultural variable has been investigated as a flexible line of defence[26]. The normal line of defence reflects an individual’s general state of wellness. It develops as a result of stressors and the individual’s previous experiences[25]. The normal line of defence has been examined using variables such as lifestyle and an individual’s response pattern that helps maintain the individual’s usual state of wellness [27]. When the system is not sufficiently protected by the flexible lines of defence, any stressor may pass through the normal lines of defence and create a reaction in the individual’s basic structure (normal body temperature, genetics, structure of ego, etc). The lines of resistance are the lines that surround the basic structure of human system. When damaging the normal line of defence, stressors activate and protect the human’s basic structure[25]. The lines of resistance have been identified with variables such as physical and emotional health, activate immune system mechanism[27][28].

The NSM explains the process of human stress response in various social issues, including nursing, from a holistic and systemic perspective[24]. Albdour, Hong, Lewin, and Yarandi[29] described the effects of cyberbullying stress on health among youth, while Woolsey[30] explained the effects of nurse managers’ job stress on their work ability. In addition, Pines et al.[31] utilised the NSM to describe stress resiliency and psychological empowerment among nursing students.

Studies to date have merely examined the relationships between JSSE and other variables or the impact of JSSE among young job seekers, with a lack of effort to describe the numerous variables that affect JSSE among youth from a holistic and systemic perspective. Furthermore, despite the fact that subjective health perception is a key determinant of health behaviour and emotional well-being[32][33], most studies have only examined the effects of unemployment and job search on physical and mental health, such as depression, anger, hormone dysfunction, and circulation disorders [13][34][35], with little focus on the impact of perceived health status on JSSE and actual job search activities.

The NSM considers humans as a system that features a holistic aspect, interaction, and change and that focuses on maintaining and strengthening the basic human structure by reducing stressors that affect the system or strengthening their lines of defence[23]. Therefore, identifying the impact of lines of defence in the relationship between employment stress (stressor) and JSSE (basic structure) among young job seekers and comprehensively describing it will clarify the effective direction of interventions that promote job search activities by increasing JSSE among young job seekers. Thus, this study aims to investigate the effects of employment stress, social support (considered a flexible line of defence, which may dynamically be altered in interaction with a stressful environment), stress coping (considered a normal line of defence, a state of equilibrium in which an individual’s system has been maintained for prolonged periods), and subjective health status (considered a line of resistance, a source of defending against stressors) on JSSE. The findings of this study may suggest a direction for career guidance for youth preparing to enter into society and will serve as valuable foundational data for effectively running career programs.

Ⅱ. Material and Methods

1. Design and Sample

This study was conducted using a quantitative research design with a cross-sectional, descriptive survey. The OECD defines youth as the age group from 15–24 years. However, due to special circumstances, such as high college entrance rate and military service obligation for men aged 20 years or older, the age at first employment is older in South Korea compared to that in other countries. Thus, this study chose job seekers aged 20–29 years registered with employment support centres in three cities with high job demands as the study population and collected data using convenience sampling. They understood the purpose and objective of the study and voluntarily provided written consent to participate in the study.

Using G*Power 3.1.9, when the number of predictors was set to 14 (the number of independent variables used in this study), significance level to 0.05, effect size to 0.15, and power to 0.95, the sample size required for a multiple regression analysis was at least 194 [36]. Therefore, in this study, 260 questionnaires were distributed, considering an attrition rate of about 30%, and all questionnaires were retrieved. A total of 201 questionnaires were used for the final analysis, excluding the incomplete ones.

2. Measurements

2.1 Job search self-efficacy

JSSE was measured using the Job Search Self-Efficacy Scale developed by Cho, Park, and Won[37]. This scale consists of 11 items, including 5 items measuring job search goals and 6 items measuring job search motivation, measured on a 5-point Likert scale. In this study, the mean score was used, calculated by dividing the total score by the number of items, with higher scores indicating higher JSSE. The reliability of the scale was measured using Cronbach’s α, which was .90 in Cho, Park, and Won’s study, and .84 in this study.

2.2 Job search stress

Job search stress was measured using the Job Search Stress Scale used by Jang and Hwang [38]. This scale consists of 22 items, including 6 items measuring personality stress, 5 items measuring family environment stress, 4 items measuring academic stress, 4 items measuring school environment stress, and 3 items measuring job search anxiety stress, measured on a 5-point Likert scale. Based on the characteristics of the subjects registered at the employment centre who were not students, job search stress was measured using only 14 items after excluding items measuring academic stress or school environment stress. In this study, the mean score was used, calculated by dividing the total score of the 14 items by the number of items, with higher scores indicating higher job search stress. Cronbach’s α was .92 for the 22 items in Jang and Hwang’s study, and .86 for the 14 items measured in this study.

2.3. Social support

Social support was measured using the Social Support Scale developed by Do[39]. This scale consists of 25 items, including 7 items measuring emotional support, 6 items measuring material support, 6 items measuring informational support, and 6 items measuring evaluative support, measured on a 5-point Likert scale. To test the effects of specific characteristics of social support on JSSE, analyses were conducted with the items divided into subdomains. In this study, the mean scores for each subdomain were used, each calculated by dividing the total score for a subdomain by the number of items, with higher scores indicating higher levels of emotional, material, informational, or evaluative support. Cronbach’s α was .91, .92, .86, and .89 for emotional, informational, material, and evaluative support, respectively, in Do’s study, and .87, .87, .82, and .85 in the present study.

2.4 Stress coping ability

Stress coping ability was measured using 8 items on problem-focused coping and 6 items on emotion-focused coping from the Stress Coping Strategy Scale used by Jeoung and Kim [40], which consists of a total of 34 items measuring problem-focused coping, social support seeking coping, emotion-focused coping, and hopeful-thinking coping. To specifically test how problem-focused coping ability and emotion-focused coping ability each influence job search self-efficacy, analyses were conducted with the items divided into domains. In this study, the mean scores for each domain were used, each calculated by dividing the total score for a domain by the number of items, with higher scores indicating better problem-focused coping ability and emotion-focused coping ability. Cronbach’s α was .76 for the 34 items on stress coping ability in Jeoung and Kim’s study, and .86 and .85 for problem-focused coping ability and emotion-focused coping ability, respectively, in the present study.

2.5 Subjective health status

Subjective health status was measured using the Subjective Health Status Scale by Lim[41]. This scale consists of 17 items, including 10 items on physical health and 7 items on mental health, measured on a 5-point Likert scale. To test how physical health and mental health each influence JSSE, analyses were conducted with the items divided into subdomains. In this study, the mean scores for each subdomain were used, each calculated by dividing the total score for a subdomain by the number of items, with higher scores indicating better physical health and mental health perception. Cronbach’s α was .83 for the 17 items on subjective health status in Lim’s study, and .86 and .85 for physical health and mental health, respectively, in the present study.

3. Ethical Considerations and Data Collection

All study procedures were approved by the G University Institutional Review Board (IRB No. 1044396-201710-HR-165-01) in Korea.

Data were collected from September to December 2018. The study plan and questionnaires were submitted to the job seeker management department of the institutions at which the data were collected, and the study was conducted after obtaining permission. The researcher explained the purpose of the study to the subjects, and the questionnaires were distributed to the people who agreed to complete them. It was explained that participation was voluntary. To protect personally identifying information, questionnaires were put in an envelope for the survey. Anonymity was ensured throughout the survey, and all personal information was kept from being exposed. The subjects were free to interrupt the survey, and no answers were collected from those subjects.

4. Data Analysis

Data were analysed using SPSS version 23.0 for Windows (SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA). The participants’ general characteristics and study variables were analysed using frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations (SD). Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were used to investigate if the variables followed a normal distribution to determine if parametric statistical tests should be used. Differences in JSSE according to participant characteristics were analysed using t-tests and one-way ANOVAs if the data were normally distributed, and using Kruskal-Wallis tests if they were not normally distributed. Correlations between research variables were examined by Pearson’s correlation coefficients. Finally, to test the true effect of lines of defence on JSSE, hierarchical multiple regression was performed after controlling for participant general characteristics and job search stress.

Ⅲ. Results

1. Characteristics of the Study Participants

Out of all the test subjects, 61.7% were male and 38.3% were female. Additionally, 28.9% of the subjects were in their early 20s (ages 20-23), 48.8% were in mid-20s (ages 24-26), and 22.4% were in late 20s (ages 27-29). Further, 30.3% had a high school education or less, and 50.7% had a college degree or higher. Job search duration was a year or less for 41.3% of the participants, 2-3 years for 42.3%, 3-5 years for 11.4%, and 5 years or more for 5.0%, while 74.1% were not satisfied with their current economic status [Table 1].

Table 1. Differences in job search self-efficacy according to participants’ demographic features

2. Data for Study Variables

Of the possible range of 1-5 points, participants’ job search stress was 3.78 points. The degree of social support was 3.98 for emotional support, 3.87 for material support, 3.95 for informational support, and 4.11 for evaluative support. For stress coping ability, problem-focused coping was 2.82 and emotion-focused coping was 2.34. Subjective health status was 2.18 for physical health and 2.24 for mental health [Table 2].

Table 2. Values of the study variables

3. Differences in Study Variables According to Participants’ Demographic Features

JSSE was not significantly different for sex, education, and satisfaction with current economic status. However, it was significantly different across age (F = 5.392, p = .005) and job search duration (F = 2.754, p = .044), such that as age increased and job search duration increased, JSSE decreased [Table 1].

4. Correlations of Study Variables with JSSE

There were no statistically significant correlations between JSSE and emotional support, informational support, evaluative support, emotion-focused coping, or mental health. However, there was a significant negative correlation with material support, which is part of social support (r = -.159, p = .024), and problem-focused coping, which is part of stress coping ability (r = .237, p = .001), while there was a significant positive correlation with physical health, which is part of subjective health status (r = .293, p < .001; [Table 3]).

Table 3. Correlations of related variables with job search self-efficacy

5. Factors Affecting JSSE of Unemployed Youth

In this study, the basic assumptions of regression analysis regarding the independent variables were tested prior to data analysis by testing for multi-collinearity, error terms, and outliers. The variance inflation factor was 1.02-1.54, less than 10, the Durbin-Watson statistic was 2.21, close to the reference value 2, and the maximum Cook’s Distance was 0.08, not exceeding 1.0. Thus, the conditions for basic assumptions necessary for a proper regression analysis were met.

In the first step of the hierarchical regression analysis, the variables entered included age and job search duration, for which JSSE differed, as well as job search stress. In the second step, social support, stress coping ability, and subjective health status were entered in addition, testing the effect of lines of defence, after controlling for participants’ demographic features and stressor. Model 1, in which age, job search duration, and job search stress were entered, explained approximately 12.3% of the variance in young job-seekers’ JSSE (F = 9.180, p < .001). Job search duration (β = -.187, p = .006) and job search stress (β = -.268, p < .001) were variables with significant effects.

For Model 2, in which social support, stress coping ability, and subjective health were added, the explanation of the variance in young job-seekers’ JSSE increased to approximately 22.8% (F = 6.917, p < .001), thus lines of defence explained approximately 16.5% more variance. In Model 2, job search duration (β = -.216, p = .001), job search stress (β = -.284, p < .001), problem-focused coping ability (β = .211, p = .003), and physical health (β = .292, p < .001) were variables with significant effects [Table 4].

Table 4. Predictors of job search self-efficacy

Ⅳ. Discussion

This study is meaningful in that it presented the direction of developing interventions that promote job search activities of youth by systematically identifying the factors that affect their JSSE based on the NSM.

The mean JSSE score of our participants was 1.9 out of 5, which is lower than that (3.18) among college students measured using a similar instrument by Park and Lee[18] and that (3.42) among middle-aged adults aged 40 years or older measured by Kim[42]. It should be noted that we collected data from young adults who had registered with an employment support centre to search for jobs. Considering that JSSE leads to employment by lowering employment anxiety and increasing employment confidence[14][15], it would be difficult to expect positive employment outcomes among our participants who are engaging in job search activities through an employment support centre but who scored low on JSSE. Developing and applying strategies to boost JSSE is crucial to increase the effectiveness of youth employment. Therefore, employment support centres, which have been founded for assisting in youth employment, should not limit their service to providing physical and informational support. These centres should implement programs that increase young adults’ JSSE based on an in-depth understanding of young job seekers. Similar to a previous finding, we found that JSSE significantly differed according to age[42] and duration of job search. In other words, JSSE decreased with increasing age and increasing duration of job search. Therefore, diverse and systematic programs that reflect the age and duration of job search of young job seekers should be developed to promote JSSE.

When the study variables were examined based on the NSM, the employment stress score among young job seekers was 3.78, which was higher than that (2.94) among college students measured with a similar instrument by Chung and Kim[43]. This was also higher than the scores among people in their 30s (2.54), 40s (2.60), 50s (2.63), and 60s (2.21) investigated by Lee [44]. Many young adults visit an employment support centre to receive professional support after they experience the challenges of getting a job[45]. This may be the reason why they had a higher employment stress score compared to that of college students. Furthermore, they may have had higher employment stress compared to job seekers in other age groups because of the nature of the post-graduation period, during which people in general as well as the job seekers themselves expect them to achieve financial independence[3][4]. There was a significant negative correlation with employment stress and JSSE (basic structure). In other words, JSSE decreases with increasing employment stress, which is similar to the findings of Ryu[4]. Employment stress may serve as a negative factor that reduces or thwarts job search activities by lowering JSSE [4][43]. Therefore, it is important to develop and provide psychological counselling programs that can help build social consensus on the severity of and reduce potential problems related to employment stress during the job search period.

In this study, social support was considered the flexible line of defence in the NSM and identified the degree of emotional, material, informational, and evaluative support felt by young job seekers in employment stress situations. The mean emotional, material, informational, and evaluative support scores were 3.98, 3.87, 3.95, and 4.11 out of 5, respectively, which were higher than those (3.31, 3.00, 3.31, and 3.44, respectively) among middle-aged job seekers found by Do’s[39] study. This is likely due to the fact that our participants had been involved in various support programs provided by an employment support centre. However, JSSE was not significantly correlated with emotional, informational, and evaluative support but was significantly negatively correlated with material support. In other words, JSSE decreased as participants felt they received more material support from people around them or the society. This contradicts previous findings that suggest that the degree of material support perceived by college students have a positive impact on their JSSE or career preparatory behaviours[46][47]. Recent studies have reported the negative effects of financial support provided to young job seekers[48]. Young adults prefer high paying jobs that require expertise as opposed to simple jobs due to an expansion of the social welfare system, loss of jobs caused by technical station, and extensive education. Therefore, direct support, such as career capacity-building programs, that assist young adults in obtaining their desired jobs, as opposed to mere material support that help them sustain their living, seem more effective in increasing their JSSE.

The mean stress coping scores, which was considered the normal line of defence in the NSM, were 2.82 for problem-focused coping and 2.34 for emotion-focused coping, which were higher than the problem-focused solving score (2.35) among college students found in Lim’s study[49]. This may be attributable to the fact that our study population consisted of people who were striving to resolve their unemployment problem through an employment support centre instead of avoiding their unemployment situation. In the present study, only problem-focused coping was positively correlated with JSSE. In other words, JSSE increased as people coped with stress in a problem-focused manner. This is similar to the finding that career decision-making self-efficacy increases with increasing use of problem-solving-focused coping strategy in the study by Kim, Jeung, and Kim [50]. Stress coping response, which is an individual’s usual pattern of stress coping, is formed over a long period[40]. Thus, to increase young job seekers’ JSSE that can lead to better employment outcomes, it is important to improve their problem-focused stress coping by developing and applying career training programs that can help young adults experience analysing causes, planning solutions, and solving problems in various problem situations before embarking on their job search process.

The mean subjective health status scores, which was considered the line of resistance in the NSM, were 2.18 for perceived physical health and 2.24 for perceived mental health. Considering the perceived physical health and mental health scores in middle-aged men (3.93 and 3.75, respectively) and women (3.74 and 3.52, respectively) in the study by Jung and Shin[51], our participants perceived themselves to be in poor health despite the fact that they are young adults between the age of 20-29 years who should be in their most energetic period of life. Subjective health status refers to the awareness of one’s overall wellbeing, and negatively perceiving one’s health predicts the onset of health problems later in life[52]. Previous studies on the health of young job seekers have merely focused on actual health problems, such as depression, anxiety, and hormone dysfunction[13][34][35], with rarely any studies examining health problems from a preventive aspect. Thus, studies that investigate young job seekers’ subjective health status, factors that affect it, and consequent problems from a prophylactic perspective are needed. In our study, only physical health was positively correlated with JSSE. In other words, JSSE increased as young adults perceived themselves to be in good physical health. Health is a source that helps one to resist and defend against stressors[24][53]. Young adults must positively perceive their health to continuously resist employment stress and engage in job search activities. Therefore, to increase JSSE and help young job seekers achieve their ultimate goal of employment by promoting their physical health, providing health support, such as health information and programs regarding diet, exercise, and lifestyle support, in addition to providing employment information and material support, would be beneficial.

In the present study, we confirmed through hierarchical regression analysis that the descriptive power of lines of defence for JSSE is 16.5% and that job search duration, employment stress, problem-focused coping, and perception about physical health are the factors that directly influence JSSE. From the holistic and systemic perspective of the NSM, this suggests that interventions that strengthen normal lines of defence and lines of resistance as well as those that reduce stressors are effective for elevating JSSE among young job seekers. Hence, it would be necessary to go beyond simply providing informational and material support and instead providing various problem-focused career training for young adults to improve their problem-focused stress coping while they are still students as well as various health programs that promote physical health during the job search period in order to increase young job seekers’ JSSE and boost employment outcomes.

Ⅴ. Conclusions

The mean JSSE score for young job seekers registered in an employment support centre was 1.99 out of a score of 5, and JSSE was significantly correlated with job search stress, material support (flexible line of defence), problem-focused coping (normal line of defence), and perception of physical health (line of resistance). Hierarchical regression analysis after adjusting for the general characteristics and employment stress of young job seekers showed that flexible line of defence, normal line of defence, and line of resistance explained for 16.5% of the total variance and that problem-focused coping (normal line of defence) and perception of physical health (line of resistance) were the key factors that affect JSSE. Therefore, interventions that improve problem-focused stress coping and those that help maintain and promote physical health would be effective in promoting employment outcomes by increasing JSSE among young job seekers.