• KDI Journal of Economic Policy
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• v.12 no.1
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• pp.31-68
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• 1990

The concentration of economic power takes the form of one or a few firms controlling a substantial portion of the economic resources and means in a certain economic area. At the same time, to the extent that these firms are owned by a few individuals, resource allocation can be manipulated by them rather than by the impersonal market mechanism. This will impair allocative efficiency, run counter to a decentralized market system and hamper the equitable distribution of wealth. Viewed from the historical evolution of Western capitalism in general, the concentration of economic power is a paradox in that it is a product of the free market system itself. The economic principle of natural discrimination works so that a few big firms preempt scarce resources and market opportunities. Prominent historical examples include trusts in America, Konzern in Germany and Zaibatsu in Japan in the early twentieth century. In other words, the concentration of economic power is the outcome as well as the antithesis of free competition. As long as judgment of the economic system at large depends upon the value systems of individuals, therefore, the issue of how to evaluate the concentration of economic power will inevitably be tinged with ideology. We have witnessed several different approaches to this problem such as communism, fascism and revised capitalism, and the last one seems to be the only surviving alternative. The concentration of economic power in Korea can be summarily represented by the "jaebol," namely, the conglomerate business group, the majority of whose member firms are monopolistic or oligopolistic in their respective markets and are owned by particular individuals. The jaebol has many dimensions in its size, but to sketch its magnitude, the share of the jaebol in the manufacturing sector reached 37.3% in shipment and 17.6% in employment as of 1989. The concentration of economic power can be ascribed to a number of causes. In the early stages of economic development, when the market system is immature, entrepreneurship must fill the gap inherent in the market in addition to performing its customary managerial function. Entrepreneurship of this sort is a scarce resource and becomes even more valuable as the target rate of economic growth gets higher. Entrepreneurship can neither be readily obtained in the market nor exhausted despite repeated use. Because of these peculiarities, economic power is bound to be concentrated in the hands of a few entrepreneurs and their business groups. It goes without saying, however, that the issue of whether the full exercise of money-making entrepreneurship is compatible with social mores is a different matter entirely. The rapidity of the concentration of economic power can also be traced to the diversification of business groups. The transplantation of advanced technology oriented toward mass production tends to saturate the small domestic market quite early and allows a firm to expand into new markets by making use of excess capacity and of monopoly profits. One of the reasons why the jaebol issue has become so acute in Korea lies in the nature of the government-business relationship. The Korean government has set economic development as its foremost national goal and, since then, has intervened profoundly in the private sector. Since most strategic industries promoted by the government required a huge capacity in technology, capital and manpower, big firms were favored over smaller firms, and the benefits of industrial policy naturally accrued to large business groups. The concentration of economic power which occured along the way was, therefore, not necessarily a product of the market system. At the same time, the concentration of ownership in business groups has been left largely intact as they have customarily met capital requirements by means of debt. The real advantage enjoyed by large business groups lies in synergy due to multiplant and multiproduct production. Even these effects, however, cannot always be considered socially optimal, as they offer disadvantages to other independent firms-for example, by foreclosing their markets. Moreover their fictitious or artificial advantages only aggravate the popular perception that most business groups have accumulated their wealth at the expense of the general public and under the behest of the government. Since Korea stands now at the threshold of establishing a full-fledged market economy along with political democracy, the phenomenon called the concentration of economic power must be correctly understood and the roles of business groups must be accordingly redefined. In doing so, we would do better to take a closer look at Japan which has experienced a demise of family-controlled Zaibatsu and a success with business groups(Kigyoshudan) whose ownership is dispersed among many firms and ultimately among the general public. The Japanese case cannot be an ideal model, but at least it gives us a good point of departure in that the issue of ownership is at the heart of the matter. In setting the basic direction of public policy aimed at controlling the concentration of economic power, one must harmonize efficiency and equity. Firm size in itself is not a problem, if it is dictated by efficiency considerations and if the firm behaves competitively in the market. As long as entrepreneurship is required for continuous economic growth and there is a discrepancy in entrepreneurial capacity among individuals, a concentration of economic power is bound to take place to some degree. Hence, the most effective way of reducing the inefficiency of business groups may be to impose competitive pressure on their activities. Concurrently, unless the concentration of ownership in business groups is scaled down, the seed of social discontent will still remain. Nevertheless, the dispersion of ownership requires a number of preconditions and, consequently, we must make consistent, long-term efforts on many fronts. We can suggest a long list of policy measures specifically designed to control the concentration of economic power. Whatever the policy may be, however, its intended effects will not be fully realized unless business groups abide by the moral code expected of socially responsible entrepreneurs. This is especially true, since the root of the problem of the excessive concentration of economic power lies outside the issue of efficiency, in problems concerning distribution, equity, and social justice.

• Journal of Radiation Protection and Research
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• v.39 no.2
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• pp.118-126
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• 2014

A survey was conducted on perceptions, knowledge, and attitudes of elementary, middle, and high school students, who will lead public opinion in the future, regarding irradiated food, nuclear power generation, and medical radiation. These topics urgently require general social acceptability among various fields in which radiation is used. Educational methods to enhance social acceptability were partially discovered. First, it is necessary to implement different strategies when designing courses for female and male students. Male students have higher levels of objective knowledge (p<0.039) of irradiated food, necessity (p<0.001) and objective knowledge (p<0.001) of nuclear power generation, approval of building a nuclear power plant in the nation (p<0.001), necessity (p<0.001) and objective knowledge (p<0.001) of medical radiation, and attitudes regarding using medical radiation (p<0.007, p<0.001). Second, the educational effect of explanations to help increase national understanding of the necessity and safety of nuclear power generation will increase if information on the necessity and safety of medical radiation is provided as well. Both male and female students perceived that medical radiation is the most necessary (p<0.001), medical radiation is the safest (p<0.001), and nuclear power generation is the least safe (p<0.013). Moreover, the correlation between medical radiation and nuclear power generation was the highest. Third, there is a need for different lectures between classes, since the patterns of perception vary according to the field of radiation use among elementary, middle, and high school students. Elementary school students had high interest in education on nuclear power generation (p<0.005), perceived that irradiated food is safe (p<0.001), and had the most positive attitude toward consuming irradiated food (p<0.001). Middle school students had high interest in education on nuclear power generation (p<0.018), perceived that nuclear power generation (p<0.001) and medical radiation (p<0.002) are safe, and had the most positive attitude toward using radiation for treatment (p<0.001). High school students had the highest level of objective knowledge on nuclear power generation (p<0.001) and medical radiation (p<0.001), and perceived that medical radiation is the most necessary (p<0.017); however, they perceived that nuclear power generation is the least safe (p<0.001). Attitudes toward irradiated food intake (p<0.001) and approving construction of a nuclear power plant in their neighborhood (p<0.001) were both low. Fourth, it is necessary to provide educational programs to change perceptions and improve attitudes rather than providing education focused on objective knowledge. There was no correlation between objective knowledge and necessity of irradiated food, objective knowledge and safety and interest in education on nuclear power generation, and objective knowledge and interest in education and information acquirement regarding medical radiation. In particular, high school students had the highest level of objective knowledge and yet had the least positive attitudes toward approving construction of nuclear power plants in their neighborhood and intake of irradiated food. Therefore, to increase the social acceptability of using nuclear energy and radiation in Korea, it is desirable to provide strategic educational programs to improve perceptions, knowledge, and attitudes regarding the necessity and safety of their use.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.41 no.2
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• pp.35-45
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• 2023

First, The spatial distribution characteristics of old big trees were analyzed using ArcGIS figures by combining basic information such as species and ages of old big trees in Handan City, which were compiled by the local bureau of landscaping. The types of species, distribution by ages of trees, ownership status, growth status, and diversity status were comprehensively analyzed. Statistically, Styphnolobium, Acacia, Gleditsia, and Albizia of Fabaceae accounted for the majority, of which Sophora japonica accounted for the highest proportion. Sophora japonica is widely and intensively distributed to each prefecture and district in Handan city. According to the age and distribution, the old big trees over 1000 years old were mainly Sophora japonica, Zelkova serrata, Juniperus chinensis, Morus australis Koidz., Dalbergia hupeana Hance, Ceratonia siliqua L., and Pistacia chinensis, and Platycladus orientalis. Second, as found in each type of old big tree status, various types of old big tree status were investigated, the protection management system, protection management process, and protection management benefits were studied, and the protection of old big tree was closely related to the growth environment. Currently, the main driving force behind the protection of old big trees is the worship of old big trees. By depositing its sacredness to the old big tree and sublimating the natural character that nature gave to the old big tree into a guiding consciousness of social activities, nature's "beauty" and personality's "goodness" are well combined. The protection state of the old big tree is closely related to the degree of interaction with the surrounding environment and the participation of various cultures and subjects. In the process of continuously interacting with the surrounding environment during the long-term growth of old big trees, it seems that a natural sanctuary was formed around old big trees in the process of voluntarily establishing a "natural-cultural-scape" system involving bottom-up and top-down cross-regions, multicultural and multi-subjects. Third, China focused on protecting and recovering old big trees, but the protection management system is poor due to a lack of comprehensive consideration of historical and cultural values, plant diversity significance, and social values of old big trees in the management process. Three indicators of space's regional characteristics, property and protection characteristics, and value characteristics can be found in the evaluation of the natural characteristics of old giant trees, which are highly valuable in terms of traditional consciousness management, resource protection practice, faith system construction, and realization of life community values. A systematic management system should be supported as to whether they can be protected and developed for a long time. Fourth, as the perception of protected areas is not yet mature in China, "natural sanctuary" should be treated as an important research content in the process of establishing a nature reserve system. The form of natural sanctuary management, which focuses on bottom-up community participation, is a strong supplement to the current type of top-down nature reserve management in China. Based on this, the protection of old giant trees should be included in the form of a nature reserve called a natural monument in the nature reserve system. In addition, residents of the area around the nature reserve should be one of the main agents of biodiversity conservation.

• Journal of Technology Innovation
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• v.23 no.4
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• pp.1-31
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• 2015

Korea has continuously increased investment on R&D to improve global technology competitiveness through technology innovation. Korea's R&D expenditure as a percent of GDP is world's No. 1 as 4.15 and it accomplished 1 trillion won trade volume for 4 consecutive years. However, despite these efforts, technology balance of payment, which is an important factor that can measure nation's technology competitiveness is in a state of chronic deficit and the lowest level among OECD countries. In this paper, we studied methods to improve Korea's technology balance of payment We figured out concept and current state of technology trade and examined the importance of technology trade through making a comparison between commodity trade and technology trade. There have been studies regarding technology trade, but there was no study which tried to figure out cognition on technology trade from the point of view of companies which plays an important role in technology trade. For this, this study distinguished companies with experience in technology trade and which have not and conducted a survey to figure out cognition and current state of companies. The survey result showed noticeable difference on cognition of top decision makers between companies with experience in technology trade and which have not and there are serious shortage in department and staff which is exclusively responsible for technology trade. Also, despite their needs for education regarding technology trade, the ratio of employees who received education is below 10 % of the total respondents. This study suggested improvement methods such as reforming survey methods of technology trade statistics, enhancing social cognition, supporting to vitalize technology export, building infrastructure regarding technology trade, and opening education programs for cultivating experts based on preceding research and industry survey.

• Journal of East-West Nursing Research
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• v.1 no.1
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• pp.82-98
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• 1997

The purpose of this study was to determine pattern of the stress perceived by stroke patients over time. The ultimate goal of the research is to provide data to help nurses to design the plan of nursing care of the stroke patients both in the hospital and at home. A total of 57 admitted stroke patients were collected from one general hospital in Seoul from June, 12 to September, la, 1993. The data were collected for three phases(within one week after leaving the hospital). The tools for this study, three scales were used ; Stress scale developed by the investigator. Constitution classifing scale designed by Kho(1984), and Self-care measuring scale by Kang(1984). Data were analyzed in four steps using statistical analysis. First, demographic data were determined by descriptive statistics. Second. the pattern of stress perceived by stroke patients across three phases was measured using repeated measures ANOVA. Third, stress of stroke patients classified by constitution, paralyzed area. and attack frequency were measured using ANOVA or t-test, and the pattern of stress by group over time was determined using paired t-test in post hoc test. Fourth. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to determine the relationship between the stress and self-care activities. The results of this study are ; 1. The pattern of stress across three phases ; There was a decrease of the stress across three phases. In general. psychological stress as the highest among three phases(F=36.92. P=.000). There was a statistically significant difference of the physical stress(F=34.55, p=.000), the psychological stress (F=15.49, p=.0005) and the social stress (F=24.71. p=.000) among three phases. There was a statistically significant difference of the stress between the first phase (on admission) and the second phase(before leaving the hospital) and was a decrease of the stress (t =6.36. p=.000). 2. The pattern of stress of stroke patients classified by constitution across three phases ; Stroke patients classified as So-Eum perceived the highest stress among three groups(Tae-Eum, So-Eum. So-Yang). There was no statistically significant difference of stress according to the constitution of stroke patients among three phases. Hence. stress was not influenced by the constitution of stroke patients, but there was a statistically significant difference of stress over time. 3. The pattern of stress of stroke patients classified by the paralyzed area across three phases ; Right paralyzed stroke patients perceived higher stress than left paralyzed stroke patients. There was, however, no statistically significant difference of stress between two groups except 2nd phase. There was no statistically significant difference of the perception of stress bet ween the right and left paralyzed stroke patients. 4. The pattern of stress of stroke patients classified by the frequency of the relapse of the disease across three phases ; Stress was higher in stroke patients who had the relapse of the disease twice more than the first time. There was, however, no statistically significant difference of stress between two groups. There was no statistically significant difference of stress of stroke patients according to the relapse of the disease among three phases. Hence, stress was no influenced by the relapse of the disease. 5. The relationship between the stress and self-care activities ; There was a negative relationship between the stress and self-care activities each phase(on admission, r= -.1563 ; before leaving the hospital, r= -.4030 ; after leaving the hospital, r= -.5291). Hence, the higher the self-care activities, the lower the stress. This study has three important findings. First finding was that psychological stress perceived by stroke patients was the highest among three phases. The second finding was that factors such as the constitution, the paralyzed area, and the relapse of the disease did not have an influence on the stress perceived by stroke patients across three phases(on admission, before leaving the hospital, after leaving the hospital). There was a statistically significant decrease of the stress perceived by stroke patients across three phases. The third finding was that there was a negative relationship between the self-care ability and stress. In this study, these findings have implications for nursing care for the rehabilitation of stroke patients and suggest the need of nursing intervention to promote the self-care ability and to support the psychological self-esteem of stroke patients.

• Journal of dental hygiene science
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• v.8 no.2
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• pp.65-71
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• 2008

The purpose of this study was to examine people's awareness of health insurance in a bid to help improve the management of dental health insurance coverage. The subjects in this study were 1,036 people who included experts in that field and medical consumers. The findings of the study were as follows: 1. In regard to the demographic characteristics of the expert group including gender and age, the female experts outnumbered the males, as the former accounted for 84.7 percent. And the experts in their 20s made up the largest age group, followed by the 30-39 age group and those in their 40s. As to the demographic characteristics of the medical consumers, the rates of the men and women stood at 49.8 percent and 50.2 percent respectively, which were similar. By age, the largest number of the medical consumers were in their 20s, followed by in their 30s and in their 40s. 2. Concerning opinions on the procurement of finance for health insurance, many respondents in both groups agreed that the health insurance coverage should be enlarged by securing more finance, and that items involved in the coverage should be prioritized again. Regarding a means of securing financial resources, the experts placed the most emphasis on extended budgetary support from the government, followed by establishing a social security system and budget compilation by local governments. The medical consumers attached the most importance to extended budgetary backing from the government, followed by budget compilation by local governments and determining contribution according to income level. 3. As for general view of the dental health insurance, the experts believed that the amounts of copayment and self-payment by the insured were appropriate(2.47), and they found the number of benefitted items to be proper(2.29) as well. The medical consumers thought that the benefit percentage of the dental health insurance in the overall health insurance budget was appropriate(2.26), and they also considered the number of benefitted items adequate(2.16). But this group didn't give a lot of marks to the appropriateness of those things. 4. As to perception about the dental health insurance, both groups took a similar view of it. Specifically, they felt the strong need for a dental health insurance system. In terms of satisfaction level, both groups were dissatisfied with it, and there was a strong tendency for them to be discontented with the health insurance coverage.

• Management & Information Systems Review
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• v.36 no.1
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• pp.59-80
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• 2017

Due to the recent deepening youth unemployment aftereffect, government, companies and universities seek a youth unemployment resolution method and jobs creating measures. But there are indications that the Good Job the university students prefer are limited and sudden rise of the youth unemployment rate mirrors the situation in Japan 20 years ago. Thus, based on the preceding research, this research attempted to perform comparative analysis on Korean and Japanese university students' employment preparation activities and perceived organizational support affect their Awareness of Good Job. To achieve the goal, 2013 GOMS 5,380 copies provided by Korea Employment Information Service are used in the case of Korea and total 5,636 copies within 256 questionnaires targeted to Japanese university students are used in the case of Japan. The results of analysis are as follows. The effect relationship between the perception of organizational support and awareness of Good Job showed a positive influence both in Korea and Japan. The effect relationship between employment preparation activities and awareness of Good Job showed a meaningful effect in Korea whereas it showed no effect in Japan. In the relationship between activities of employment preparation and awareness of Good Job, moderating effect of gender and major field of study didn't show any effect either in Korea or Japan. The results of this research are as follows. First, because it is verified that the support of university has positive influence on the university students' awareness of Good Job, it seems that universities need to intensify the support for the students' welfare enhancement, education satisfaction and the structural support system. Second, the gap of attitude of employment preparation activities and awareness of Good Job between Korea and Japan occurred due to the levels of social structure, welfare and wage differences in the two countries. Therefore, if measures of policy to resolve the welfare and wage gaps between conglomerates and smaller enterprises are enacted, the awareness of younger generations to the Good Job will show a corresponding effect.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture
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• v.37 no.4
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• pp.32-41
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• 2009

Places such as famous urban sights and foreign settlements have recently been created in Korea, which reflects the increase in social and cultural exchanges and the number of place-making and landscape-planning projects. Understanding place identity is required in environmental design and planning. This paper examined the components of the identity of place through comparison of perceptions of "placeness" between residents and visitors of Seo-Rae Village, Seoul, Korea. More than 40% of French nationals in Korea reside in the village, which many Koreans visit as an urban sightseeing place. Twenty-five French inhabitants and forty-one Korean visitors were surveyed. Insideness of Seo-Rae Village was formed by limited activities and needs of the residents, primarily children's education and food purchases. Residents mentioned that the physical environment, especially buildings, lacked theauthenticity of French style. The symbolic meaning of the French village influenced the visitors' activities. The authenticity of French style, however, did not affect the perception of visitors and outsideness of the place. Visitors' activities and cognitive meanings of the place were formed mainly by the commercial environment established by Korean investments. Commercialization of the place and related activities played an important role in establishing insideness of the place. The village shows the phenomenon of the reversal of insideness and outsideness. The "placeness" of Seo-Rae village has been shaped by visitors' tastes rather than the true experience of insideness. Mass identity formed by mass media using French characteristics influenced this phenomenon. Insideness formed by inhabitants appeared to be a pseudo-place, which was created by the French tastes of visitors and lacked French authenticity. Seo-Rae Villagerepresents a superficial cloak.

• Journal of the Economic Geographical Society of Korea
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• v.14 no.3
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• pp.419-436
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• 2011

Korean farm villages are locked in vicious circle, as lots of their problems related to low income and hollow matters are geared and multiply. To get over those problems, various plans to develop Korean farm villages are being pushed ahead. In addition, since the early of 1990s, Korea has been projects to develop settlement zones and culture villages. It has been also preceeding with a comprehensive development project of farm villages and a new vitalizations project, etc. All of these projects aim to reorganize and expand life environments, industrial bases, and convenience and welfare facilities. The existing studies on a comprehensive project to develop farm villages have been focusing on evaluation indexes, problems, investment priorities, etc. But in fact, studies on a comprehensive development project of farm villages are not thoroughgoing enough in aspects of residents' attitude and their recognition on the influence on tourist development. Thus, this study aims to present strategic schemes to allow residents to actively participate in a stage of promoting a comprehensive development project of farm villages, a stage of making the plan, and a stage of the implementation. For this, this study analyzes a comprehensive development project of farm villages and attempts to figure out which influence the tourist development in farm villages has on residents' attitude and recognition resulting from changes in economic, social cultural, and environmental aspects. Especially, this study previously examines what influential factors there exists are and what influences the development of farm villages has on residents. Based on the results from the above analysis, schemes to enable residents to actively a comprehensive development project of farm villages are presented as follows. First, it is necessary to raise our recognition on tourism and tourism development of farm villages. If the main theme of a comprehensive development project of farm villages intends farm village development, it is required to educate residents and let them clearly raise their recognition on tourism, and the effect of the project is guaranteed. Second, it is highly required to make a plan so that we can feel economic effects of revenues through project promotion and positive effects including the expansion of infrastructures and welfare facilities, etc. Third, it is necessary to bring into relief the positive recognition and attitude of a comprehensive development project of farm villages. As for the negative recognition and attitude, it is very important to change negative residents' recognition to the positive direction and to allow them to participate in and to take an interest in the project, so that the project can be effectively promoted.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.1 no.2
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• pp.239-249
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• 1996

Despite the importance of prenatal nutrition, many studies find inadequate calcium intake among pregnant women. The purpose of this study was to investigate the value of the Theory of Planned Behavior in explaining the intentions and the actual consumption of milk among pregnant women participating in or eligible for WIC. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to collect information regarding attitudes, subjective norms, perceived control, milk allocation within the family, intentions and consumption of milk. The survey questionnaire was developed using open-ended questions and interviews with 112 pregnant women. One-hundred-eighty women recruited from prenatal clinics completed the survey questionnaire. Multiple regression was used separately to investigate the association of factors to intentions and to the consu-mption of milk, as proposed in the theory. Milk allocation within the family was used as an exploratory variable to explain milk consumption. Study findings revealed that all three factors, attitudes, subjective norms and perceived control contributed to the model in explaining intentions (explained variance : 36.2%), with perceived control being most important. For milk consumption, intentions and perceived control were related significantly to actual consumption, while milk allocation within the family was not (explained variance : 44.6%). These findings suggest that perceived control is important in understanding both intentions and milk consumption, providing empirical evidence for the Theory of Planned Behavior. With respect to the role of perceived control, more strong evidence was provided in explaining intentions. Findings suggest that educational interventions to increase milk consumption among pregnant women should incorporate strategies to enhance the perception of control, and to strengthen positive attitudes and to elicit social support from significant other. (Korean J Community Nutrition 1(2) 239-249, 1996)