• 제목/요약/키워드: Interpretation of treaties

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국제투자분쟁에서 중재판정시 투자조약의 해석과 적용에 관한 연구 (A Study on the Interpretation and Application of Investment Treaties for Arbitral Award under International Investment Disputes)

  • 황지현;박은옥
    • 무역상무연구
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    • 제59권
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    • pp.59-78
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    • 2013
  • The interpretation and application of investment treaties takes place mostly by ad hoc tribunals. Their composition varies from case to case. But in interpreting and applying investment treaties are bound to exist on a ground rule and coherent criteria. Given summarizing contents of this study, those are as follows. When interpreting investment treaties, (i) most tribunals is based on Article 31 and 32 of the VCLT, (ii) tribunals rely on previous decisions, (iii) tribunals resort to travaux pr$\acute{e}$paratoires, (iv) tribunals consider the interpretative statement. When applying investment treaties, (i) treaties apply only in relation to acts or events that occurred after their entry into force, (ii) tribunals have applied different inter-temporal rules to jurisdictional clauses and substantive provisions in treaties, (iii) the relevant date for purposes of jurisdiction is the date of the institution of proceedings, (iv) Under the ICSID convention, the host state and investor's nationality must be a party to the convention on the date the proceedings are instituted. This study is expected to possibly become guideline in the interpretation and application standards of investment treaties. So future disputes can be prevented and prepared in advance.

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The MFN Principle at Peril in Investment Treaties - with Particular References to Ansung Housing and Beijing Urban Construction

  • Chung, Chan-Mo
    • Journal of Korea Trade
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    • 제24권2호
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    • pp.15-30
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    • 2020
  • Purpose - This paper investigates the theories and practices of Most-Favored-Nation (MFN) clauses. The MFN clause became a controversial issue during the past two decades, especially in the context of investment arbitration. This paper aims to clarify a reasonable way to apply MFN clauses. It in particular focuses on the territoriality requirements and the scope of investment activity which are common features included in most of investment treaties. Design/methodology - This paper analyses two investment arbitration cases, Ansung Housing and Beijing Urban Construction. Through the case study, this paper reveals limitations of the currently dominant views on the operation of MFN clauses. It then tries to reconstruct the system of MFN application within the relevant arbitration principles. Findings - Tribunals of recent investment arbitration as represented in the two cases above employed strict literal interpretation of the treaty provisions, especially of the phrase "in its territory". This paper finds a more functional interpretation is appropriate and consistent with theories of public international law and developments of global economy. Originality/value - Existing studies either stuck to literal interpretation or suggested more flexible interpretation of the phrase "in its territory" without full explanation. This paper tries to fill the gap in the existing discussion by analyzing legal foundations and theoretical structure for an effective interpretation of MFN clauses.

Is CISG Applicable and Suitable in Service Contracts?

  • Kyujin Kim
    • Journal of Korea Trade
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    • 제27권3호
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    • pp.43-64
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    • 2023
  • Purpose - This paper studies whether CISG can be a suitable governing law for pure service contracts. When CISG was first drafted, there was little disagreement on the fact that contracts for the sale of goods and those for the provision of services were two different types of contract. Based on this understanding, CISG explicitly provides that the Convention will apply to contracts where the preponderant part of the contractual obligation is on the sale of goods, not services. However, as more sales transactions have come to include more elements of services, mainly due to the advancement of the IoT industry, the distinction between goods and services became more blurred. Based on the observation of recent changes, some scholars even argue that such a change supports the applicability and suitability of CISG to even pure service contracts. The purpose of this paper is to critically analyze and evaluate their argument. Design/methodology - This paper focuses on two separate but related issues: CISG's 'applicability' and 'suitability' to service contracts. For the first issue, this paper will examine the rules of interpretation of international treaties under the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969, and will apply its rules to find the proper answer. For the second issue, this paper will perform logical and empirical analyses on the reasoning employed by scholars claiming the suitability of CISG to service contracts. Findings - This paper concludes that CISG does not, and should not, apply to pure service contracts. The argument that CISG applies to pure service contracts directly contravenes Article 3(2) of the Convention, which expressly states that it does not apply to a contract wherein the preponderant part of its obligation is about services rather than sales. Similarly, CISG is not a suitable governing law for pure service contracts because it aims provide rules specifically tailored to the needs of transactions of sales of goods, not services. Servitization of sales of goods transaction does not change this conclusion. Originality/value - This paper presents different views from those offered by some eminent scholars on the issue of applicability and suitability of CISG to service contracts. By doing so, it is hoped that the confusion caused in discussions so far are clarified. Hopefully, this paper can also provide practical guidance to practitioners engaged in the fields of international sales, services, and IoT industries.

국제투자협정상 공정하고 공평한 대우에 관한 연구 (A Study on Fair and Equitable Treatment in International Investment Agreements)

  • 김용일;홍성규
    • 한국중재학회지:중재연구
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    • 제22권3호
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    • pp.187-213
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    • 2012
  • The purpose of this article is to examine Fair and Equitable Treatment in International Investment Agreements. Most BITs and other investment treaties provide for FET of foreign investments. Today, this concept is the most frequently invoked standard in investment disputes. It is also the standard with the highest practical relevance: a majority of successful claims pursued in international arbitration are based on a violation of the FET standard. The concept of FET is not new but has appeared in international documents for some time. Some of these documents were nonbinding others entered into force as multilateral or bilateral treaties. Considerable debate has surrounded the question of whether the FET standard merely reflects the internationalminimum standard, as contained in customary international law, or offers an autonomous standard that is additional to general international law. As a matter of textual interpretation, it seems implausible that a treaty would refer to a well-known concept like the "minimum standard of treatment in customary international law" by using the expression "fair and equitable treatment." Broad definitions or descriptions are not the only way to gauge the meaning of an elusive concept such as FET. Another method is to identify typical factual situations to which this principle has been applied. An examination of the practice of tribunals demonstrates that several principles can be identified that are embraced by the standard of fair and equitable treatment. Some of the cases discussed clearly speak to the central roles of transparency, stability, and the investor's legitimate expectations in the current understanding of the FET standard. Other contexts in which the standard has been applied concern compliance with contractual obligations, procedural propriety and due process, action in good faith, and freedom from coercion and harassment. In short, meeting the investor's central legitimate concern of legal consistency, stability, and predictability remains a major, but not the only, ingredient of an investment-friendly climate in which the host state in turn can reasonably expect to attract foreign investment.

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국제투자조약상 포괄적 보호조항(Umbrella Clauses)의 해석에 관한 연구 (Interpretation of the Umbrella Clause in Investment Treaties)

  • 조희문
    • 한국중재학회지:중재연구
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    • 제19권2호
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    • pp.95-126
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    • 2009
  • One of the controversial issues in investor-state investment arbitration is the interpretation of "umbrella clause" that is found in most BIT and FTAs. This treaty clause requires on Contracting State of treaty to observe all investment obligations entered into with foreign investors from the other Contracting State. This clause did not receive in-depth attention until SGS v. Pakistan and SGS v. Philippines cases produced starkly different conclusions on the relations about treaty-based jurisdiction and contract-based jurisdiction. More recent decisions by other arbitral tribunals continue to show different approaches in their interpretation of umbrella clauses. Following the SGS v. Philippines decision, some recent decisions understand that all contracts are covered by umbrella clause, for example, in Siemens A.G. v. Argentina, LG&E Energy Corp. v. Argentina, Sempra Energy Int'l v. Argentina and Enron Corp. V. Argentina. However, other recent decisions have found a different approach that only certain kinds of public contracts are covered by umbrella clauses, for example, in El Paso Energy Int'l Co. v. Argentina, Pan American Energy LLC v. Argentina and CMS Gas Transmission Co. v. Argentina. With relation to the exhaustion of domestic remedies, most of tribunals have the position that the contractual remedy should not affect the jurisdiction of BIT tribunal. Even some tribunals considered that there is no need to exhaust contract remedies before bringing BIT arbitration, provoking suspicion of the validity of sanctity of contract in front of treaty obligation. The decision of the Annulment Committee In CMS case in 2007 was an extraordinarily surprising one and poured oil on the debate. The Committee composed of the three respected international lawyers, Gilbert Guillaume and Nabil Elaraby, both from the ICJ, and professor James Crawford, the Rapportuer of the International Law Commission on the Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, observed that the arbitral tribunal made critical errors of law, however, noting that it has limited power to review and overturn the award. The position of the Committee was a direct attack on ICSID system showing as an internal recognition of ICSID itself that the current system of investor-state arbitration is problematic. States are coming to limit the scope of umbrella clauses. For example, the 2004 U.S. Model BIT detailed definition of the type of contracts for which breach of contract claims may be submitted to arbitration, to increase certainty and predictability. Latin American countries, in particular, Argentina, are feeling collectively victims of these pro-investor interpretations of the ICSID tribunals. In fact, BIT between developed and developing countries are negotiated to protect foreign investment from developing countries. This general characteristic of BIT reflects naturally on the provisions making them extremely protective for foreign investors. Naturally, developing countries seek to interpret restrictively BIT provisions, whereas developed countries try to interpret more expansively. As most of cases arising out of alleged violation of BIT are administered in the ICSID, a forum under the auspices of the World Bank, these Latin American countries have been raising the legitimacy deficit of the ICSID. The Argentine cases have been provoking many legal issues of international law, predicting crisis almost coming in actual investor-state arbitration system. Some Latin American countries, such as Bolivia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Argentina, already showed their dissatisfaction with the ICSID system considering withdrawing from it to minimize the eventual investor-state dispute. Thus the disagreement over umbrella clauses in their interpretation is becoming interpreted as an historical reflection on the continued tension between developing and developed countries on foreign investment. There is an academic and political discussion on the possible return of the Calvo Doctrine in Latin America. The paper will comment on these problems related to the interpretation of umbrella clause. The paper analyses ICSID cases involving principally Latin American countries to identify the critical legal issues arising between developing and developed countries. And the paper discusses alternatives in improving actual investor-State investment arbitration; inter alia, the introduction of an appellate system and treaty interpretation rules.

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해수면 상승이 유엔해양법협약 적용에 미치는 영향 분석 (Analysis on the Legal Impacts of Sea-Level Rise for the Application of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea)

  • 이용희
    • 해양환경안전학회지
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    • 제29권2호
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    • pp.147-159
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    • 2023
  • 기후변화로 인하여 해수면 상승이 발생하고 있고, 그로 인한 악영향에 대해 연안국을 비롯한 국제사회의 우려가 커지고 있다. 해수면 상승으로 해안선이 후퇴하고 섬등 해양지형물이 수몰되는 경우 그러한 해안선을 기점으로 설정된 연안국 관할해역 외측한계의 변경 가능성, 기존 해양경계획정조약의 개정 필요성, 섬 또는 암석이 암석 또는 수중암초로 변경됨에 따른 법적 지위의 변화 등 많은 국제해양법적 쟁점을 발생시키고 있다. 이 논문에서는 해수면 상승이 국제해양법에 미치는 효과에 한정하여, 쟁점별로 소도서개발도상국, 세계국제법학회, 유엔 국제법위원회의 주장을 검토하고 유엔해양법협약의 해석론적 측면에서 해결방안을 제시하였다.

한미간(韓美間) 항공화물운송(航空貨物運送)에 관(關)한 공통조약관계(共通條約關係)의 존재(存在) 여부(與否)-Chubb & Son, Inc. v. Asiana Airlines (2nd Cir. 2000) 및 미국(美國)에서의 논의(論議)를 중심(中心)으로- (Whether the United States and the Republic of Korea were in a treaty relationship under the Warsaw Convention system -Chubb & Son, Inc. v. Asiana Airlines (2nd Cir. 2000)-)

  • 정재중
    • 항공우주정책ㆍ법학회지
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    • 제16권
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    • pp.160-196
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    • 2002
  • In this thesis. I have first introduced and studied Chubb & Son. Inc. v. Asiana Airlines. 214 F.3d 301 (2nd Cir. 2000). which held that at the time that the dispute in this case arose. there was no treaty relationship between the United States and South Korea under the Original Warsaw convention. the Hague Protocol. or a treaty consisting of those provisions of the Original Convention that were not amended by the Protocol. And I have analyzed U.S. government s position that was expressed in Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae on petition for a writ certiorari to the 2nd Circuit on Chubb & Son case and 2nd Circuit s Fujitsu Limited v. Federal Express Corporation. 247 F.3d 423 (2001) which was held in a related question afterwards but was somewhat inconsistent with Chubb & Son s holding. Furthermore. I also examined U.S. government s measures which have been considered and taken to cope with consequences of Chubb & Son case's ruling. Lastly. I have examined several effects which Chubb & Son s ruling would give our nation s airlines and suggested our government's countermeasures.

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한·미FTA 특혜관세분쟁을 대비한 미국판례의 동향과 함의 (The Disputes of FTA Preferential Duty Treatment : The Implications of the U.S Customs Case Laws)

  • 하충룡
    • 통상정보연구
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    • 제17권3호
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    • pp.203-222
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    • 2015
  • 본 연구에서는 미국의 판례와 법제를 살펴봄으로서 기존의 FTA관련한 법제연구가 주로 협정문해석을 위주로 하는 점을 보완하였다. 또한 향후에 우리 기업이 분쟁의 발생에 대비한 법적대응방안을 구체적으로 세우는데 연구의 주된 목적이 있다. 미국의 FTA특혜관세를 관장하는 법은 주로 미국관세법(Tariff Act of 1930)이라 할 수 있고, 이를 보완하기 위하여 각국과 체결한 자유무역협정과 연계하여 관세행정을 시행하고 있다. 연방관세법에서 주로 쟁점이 되는 사항은 상품의 분류와 관련하여 통합관세율표(Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States)의 해석문제라고 할 수 있다. 한미FTA협정문과 미국관세법에 의해 분쟁을 판단함에 있어 미국연방법원은 연방세관이 내리는 결정에 대하여 비교적 우호적인 태도를 취하고 있음을 알 수 있다. 이는 미연방세관당국이 통관과정에서의 많은 규제경험으로 법적인 하자를 크게 노정하지 않고 관세행정을 다루고 있음을 의미한다. 따라서 한국의 수출업자는 미국 진출시에 발생할 수 있는 관세법상의 문제점을 미리 점검하고 세관당국의 규제선례를 적극적으로 수집하여 미국세관당국의 조치를 사전에 예상하고 이에 대한 대비책을 미리 세우는 것이 중요할 것이다.

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최근국제항공보안대책(最近國際航空保安対策)의 제간제(諸間題) -특히 법적측면(法的測面)을 중심(中心)으로- (Some New Problems of International Aviation Security- Considerations Forcused on its Legal Aspects)

  • 최완식
    • 항공우주정책ㆍ법학회지
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    • 제5권
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    • pp.53-75
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    • 1993
  • This article is concerned with the comment on "Some New Problems of International Aviation Security-Considerations Forcused on its Legal Aspects". Ever since 1970, in addition to the problem of failure to accept the Tokyo, Hague and Montreal Conventions, there has been also the problem of parties to them, failing to comply with their obligations under the respective treaties, in the form especially of nominal penalties or the lack of any effort to prosecute after blank refusals to extradite. There have also been cases of prolonged detention of aircraft, passengers and hostages. In this regard, all three conventions contain identical clauses which submit disputes between two or more contracting States concerning the interpretation or application of the respective conventions to arbitration or failing agreement on the organization of the arbitration, to the International Court of Justice. To the extent to which contracting States have not contracted out of this undertaking, as I fear they are expressly allowed to do, this promision can be used by contracting States to ensure compliance. But to date, this avenue does not appear to have been used. From this point of view, it may be worth mentioning that there appears to be an alarming trend towards the view that the defeat of terrorism is such an overriding imperative that all means of doing so become, in international law, automatically lawful. In addition, in as far as aviation security is concerned, as in fact it has long been suggested, what is required is the "application of the strictest security measures by all concerned."In this regard, mention should be made of Annex 17 to the Chicago Convention on Security-Safeguarding International Civil Aviation against Acts of Unlawful Intereference. ICAO has, moreover, compiled, for restricted distribution, a Security Manual for Safeguarding Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference, which is highly useful. In this regard, it may well be argued that, unless States members of ICAO notify the ICAO Council of their inability to comply with opecific standards in Annex 17 or any of the related Annexes in accordance with Article 38 of the 1944 Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation, their failure to do so can involve State responsibility and, if damage were to insure, their liability. The same applies to breaches of any other treaty obligation. I hope to demonstrate that although modes of international violence may change, their underlying characteristics remain broadly similar, necessitating not simply the adoption of an adequate body of domestic legislation, firm in its content and fairly administered, but also an international network of communication, of cooperation and of coordination of policies. Afurther legal instrument is now being developed by the Legal Committee of ICAO with respect to unlawful acts at International airports. These instruments, however, are not very effective, because of the absence of universal acceptance and the deficiency I have already pointed out. Therefore, States, airports and international airlines have to concentrate on prevention. If the development of policies is important at the international level, it is equally important in the domestic setting. For example, the recent experiences of France have prompted many changes in the State's legislation and in its policies towards terrorism, with higher penalties for terrorist offences and incentives which encourage accused terrorists to pass informations to the authorities. And our government has to tighten furthermore security measures. Particularly, in the case an unarmed hijacker who boards having no instrument in his possession with which to promote the hoax, a plaintiff-passenger would be hard-pressed to show that the airline was negligent in screening the hijacker prior to boarding. In light of the airline's duty to exercise a high degree of care to provide for the safety of all the passengers on board, an acquiescence to a hijacker's demands on the part of the air carrier could constitute a breach of duty only when it is clearly shown that the carrier's employees knew or plainly should have known that the hijacker was unarmed. The general opinion is that the legal oystem could be sufficient, provided that the political will is there to use and apply it effectively. All agreed that the main responsibility for security has to be borne by the governments. A state that supports aviation terrorism is responsible for violation of International Aviation Law. Generally speaking, terrorism is a violation of international law. It violates the sovereign rights of states, and the human rights of the individuals. We have to contribute more to the creation of a general consensus amongst all states about the need to combat the threat of aviation terrorism. I think that aviation terrorism as becoming an ever more serious issue, has to be solved by internationally agreed and closely co - ordinated measures.

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항공운송인의 손해배상책임 원인에 관한 법적 고찰 - 여객 손해배상책임을 중심으로 - (A Legal Study on liability for damages cause of the air carrier : With an emphasis upon liability of passenger)

  • 소재선;이창규
    • 항공우주정책ㆍ법학회지
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    • 제28권2호
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    • pp.3-35
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    • 2013
  • 오늘날 항공운송은 국가 간 인적 물적 교류를 위한 최적화된 운송 수단이다. 우리나라는 물론 세계 각국은 효율적인 항공운송을 이용하기 위해 국제항공협정을 체결하여 항공사 노선확장과 운항횟수의 증가 등을 이룩하였지만 동전의 양면처럼 항공운송 사고의 발생가능성도 높아졌다. 항공운송 사고의 발생 빈도는 타교통수단 사고와 비교하였을 때 높지는 않아도 항공사고가 발생하면 대형 참사로 이어진다. 항공운송 사고는 국내 운송사고보다 국제 운송사고가 많으며, 사고가 발생하였을 경우에 항공운송인과 여객 또는 송하인 등의 법적 책임에 대한 분석이 필요하다. 항공운송 사고의 법적 규율에 대한 선순위 판단은 항공운송계약의 종류의 구분이다. 항공운송계약은 객체에 따라 항공여객운송계약과 항공물건운송계약으로 분별된다. 특히 항공여객운송 사고는 인명 피해를 발생시키기 때문에 이에 대한 법적 규율에 대한 논의가 더욱 필요하다. 개정 "상법" 항공운송편은 국제항공운송에서 세계적으로 활용되는 조약들의 내용을 우리 실정에 맞게 반영하여 국제적 기준에 맞으면서 체계상으로도 육상 해상 항공 운송을 포괄하는 특징을 갖고 있다. 그러나 "상법"은 운송계약상 항공운송인의 손해배상책임 문제를 규율하는 몬트리올협약을 주로 반영하면서 동 협약이 가지고 있던 문제로 인하여 국내 상황에 맞게 변형 및 생략을 통해 동 협약의 규정을 수용함으로 인해 발생하는 문제들도 생겨나게 되었다. 특히 여객 손해에 대한 손해배상책임의 발생 원인으로서 사고의 개념은 판례의 해석이 반영된 관련 조약과 "상법"에서 어느 정도 명확한 개념 정의가 필요하다고 할 것이다. "상법" 항공운송편의 모법인 몬트리올 협약은 여객의 사망 또는 신체상해의 원인이 된 사고가 '항공기상에서' 또는 '승강을 위한 작업 중' 발생한 경우에 항공운송인의 손해배상책임에 대하여 규정하고 있으며 이는 바르샤바 협약부터 이를 개정한 전 협약에 걸쳐 동일하게 규정되었고 '사고'의 개념 및 '승강을 위한 작업 중'의 범위와 관련하여 지금까지 논란이 계속되고 있는 중이다. 또한 손해배상의 대상 범주인 여객 손해 중 '신체상해'에 여객이 항공운송 중에 입은 정신적 손해를 포함시킬 수 있는지 여부를 두고 논쟁 중이다. 현행법상 신체적 상해의 경우 특정 상황에서 정신적 손해에 대한 배상이 가능하고 항공사고로 인한 발생한 정신적 손해는 중대한 신체적 상해와 같이 피해자로 하여금 정상적인 생활을 할 수 없게 할 만큼 심각한 피해이다. 그래서 여객의 정신적 손해는 관련 조약이나 "상법"상 신체적 상해에 포함하는 것으로 해석할 필요가 있으며 항공운송인의 합리적인 보호와 남소의 예방 측면에서 명백히 증명될 수 있는 정신적 손해만을 배상하여야 할 것이다. 연착 손해의 배상은 바르샤바 협약, 몬트리올 협약, "상법"은 여객 수하물 및 운송물의 연착으로 인한 항공운송인의 손해배상책임 규정은 있지만 연착에 대한 언급을 하고 있지 않기 때문에 연착에 대한 개념 정리가 필요하다. 연착의 개념에 대한 엄격한 해석은 항공운송인의 안전한 운항을 저해할 소지가 있으므로 여객 수하물 또는 운송물이 항공운송계약에 명시된 도착 예정인 공항에 합의된 시간 내에 또는 이러한 합의가 없을 경우 당해 상황을 고려해 선의의 운송인에게 요구할 수 있는 합리적인 시간 내에 도착 또는 인도되지 아니한 경우를 말한다와 같이 정의하는 것이 옳다고 생각한다. 항공사 약관의 손해는 여객 손해는 대한항공의 국제여객운송약관에 의하면 협약이나 기타 법령에서 정하는 경우 이외에 해당하는 항공운송이나 대한항공이 행하는 서비스로부터 여객에게 발생한 손해는 대한항공이 원칙적으로 책임을 부담하지 않고 대한 항공의 태만 또는 고의적인 과실에 기인하여 발생하였다는 사실이 증명되고 동 손해에 여객의 과실이 개재되지 않았다는 점이 판명된 경우에만 책임을 부담한다. 협약 또는 법령에서 정하지 않은 손해의 경우에는 항공사 측의 과실이 증명된 경우에만 책임을 부담한다는 조항인데 대한항공 약관상 '태만' 또는 '고의적인 과실'이라는 용어의 적합성에 대한 판단이 필요하며 중과실이라고 함이 타당하다고 생각된다. 수하물 손해는 대한항공 국제여객운송약관은 여객의 위탁수하물에 포함되어 있는 전자제품 등의 손상 또는 인도의 지연에 대하여 대한항공은 사실을 알고 있는지 여부에 관계없이 책임을 부담하지 않지만 미국을 출발 또는 도착하는 국제선 운송의 경우에는 그렇지 않다. 따라서 미국을 출발 또는 도착하는 국제선 여객을 다른 나라에 출발 또는 도착하는 국제선 여객을 불합리하게 차별하는 것으로 조약의 내용과 동일하게 물품에 대하여 항공사가 책임을 부담하는 방향으로 개정되어야 할 것이다.

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