• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.54 no.3
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• pp.168-191
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• 2021

This article examines the shape, iconography, and creation date of the Four Buddhist Heavenly Kings (Sacheonwang 四天王) enshrined in the Heavenly Kings' Gate (Cheonwangmun 天王門) of Hoeamsa in Yangju, Gyeonggi Province during the early Joseon Dynasty. First, small fragments of clay decoration excavated from a fourth-platform gate site of the Hoeamsa Temple Site in Yangju Gyeonggi Province were analyzed and compared to other Four Heavenly Kings enshrined in the (Cheonwangmun gates) during the Joseon Dynasty. In addition, the size and shape of the gate were compared to other Cheonwangmun gates constructed during the Joseon Dynasty. Results revealed that the excavated fragments were part of the armor of Sacheonwang, and the clay-standing statues enshrined in the fourth-platform gate of Hoeamsa Temple would be proportional in size to those of Beopjusa Temple in Boeum, South Chungcheong Province. The flame-type pieces, which decorated the Heavenly King's crown in the Joseon Dynasty, and the rectangular-type pieces were not found in artifacts from the Goryeo Dynasty. Therefore, the Sacheonwang sculptures of the Hoeamsa Temple were likely made in the late 15th century in the early Joseon Dynasty. A detailed iconography of the Sacheonwang of Hoeamsa is presumedly based on the Buddhist paintings and illustrations of Buddhist scriptures (Gyeongbyeonsangdo 經變相圖)from the late Goryeo and early Joseon. During the late Goryeo Dynasty and early Joseon Dynasty, Traditional iconography from Goryeo and new iconography from Ming coexisted. However, in the late 15th century, the Sacheonwang statues of the early Joseon Dynasty had many different elements from those of the Goryeo Dynasty and were similar to those enshrined in Cheonwangmun Gate during the Joseon Dynasty. The Four Heavenly Kings of Hoeamsa Temple, believed to have been produced in the late 15th century, has historical significance in the following points. They were the first Joseon Sacheonwang statues example enshrined in the Cheonwangmun gate. In addition, they were established as a new tradition that influenced the iconography of the Four Heavenly Kings during the Joseon Dynasty.

• Strategy21
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• s.44
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• pp.177-212
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• 2018

The purpose of this article is to examine the 'Discussion of maritime defense' which began to be discussed from the late Goryeo dynasty to the early Joseon dynasty and the process of establishing a maritime defense system. Also it can identify changes in the aspects of the naval ship operation and their strategic tactics during the reign of King Sejong. Japanese raiders began a full-scale invasion from 1350 at the late Goryeo Dynasty, So the government realized the need to raise the 'Sea power' and to organize the maritime defense system for defending enemy invasion. for example, the reinforcement of naval forces, construction of warships, develoment of weapon systems and so on. which have achieved remarkable growth while continuing, have also been used to carry out a three-time 'Conquest of Daemado' in 1389, 1396, 1419. Until then, however, it is difficult to interpret that the naval forces had a systematic and organizational combat operation system. According to fighting patterns on combat reports before the early days of King Sejong's reign, Our naval forces had no advantage over the Japanese raiders in terms of their capabilities and tactics. Then, the period of King Sejong marked a watershed in maritime defense history. Based on accumulated experience of naval battles and force Projections, The paradigm shift of the naval strategic tactics for maritime defense has occurred. First, the capability of the naval vessels has improved. for example, ship speed, durability, and weather resistance. Through these efforts, navy forces were able to pursue and attack, destroy enemy's ships by taking advantage of the 'Ship speed superiority'. This has led to tactical shifts from defensive to offensive. Second, purpose to support offensive tactics, the government put a strategic plan into practice that is the forward depolyment of naval bases from the inland to the coast, considering the 'sea environment' and 'threat'. By doing so, Joseon dynasty was able to secure 'the command of the sea'. This may be a little different from the perception of the so-called 'peace period' that King Sejong's era. We need to remember that Joseon dynasty was working hard for its defense. When studying history of maritime defense, these strategic and tactical elements must be fully considered. Only then we can have a coherent understanding of the many naval battles in the past, including the Imjin War(1592-1598).

• The Journal of Korean Philosophical History
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• no.35
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• pp.165-188
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• 2012

The purpose of this study is to examine the historical consciousness and view of the three religions (Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism) of Won Cheon Seok who lived a period of historical transition from the end of the Goryeo Dynasty to the early Joseon Dynasty. Actively speaking for the public in his time and having the same attitude as the Neo-Confucian scholars in the end of Goryeo Dynasty, he kept criticizing the abuse of the power by powerful families who made the people fall into a state of distress and misery. He believed the dispatch of troops to conquer the Yodong region as a great opportunity to boost the valiant spirit of his country; however, the reality was quite opposite to his expectation as Lee Seong Gye had withdrawn the army troops at the Wihwado causing a great risk to his country. He took a very hard line stance against what Lee Seong Gye did. Although he was a Confucian scholar, he did not ignore Buddhism and Taoism and understood that after all the three religions were based on the same principle. His deep understanding of Buddhism and Taoism as well as Confucianism helped him to make sense of Confucianism even further. He was able to sublimate the worldly anguish coming from the Confucian thinking system by indulging himself deeply into the world view of Buddhism and Taoism. In the end, his view on the three religions was based on the idea that they taught the same principle. His view of the three religions with transactional features has a huge implication for the contemporary society in which various values and multiple cultures coexist and have more common grounds.

• The Journal of Korean Medical History
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• v.24 no.2
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• pp.1-15
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• 2011

Kim Su-On(1409~1481) was a editor in King Sejong's times who worked on the publication of "Euibangyoochui(醫方類聚)" and other major publications led by the royal family. This paper will review the works of Kim Su-On based on the medical background of early Joseon Dynasty and the medical book-reading officer system, and also evaluate his contribution to the development of medicine in early Joseon Dynasty, factoring in his life, ideas, and literary talent. By looking at the life of Kim Su-On, we can understand the role of Confucian doctors(儒醫) in the early Joseon Dynasty, how Confucian scholars who were learned in medicine supervised the compilation and correction of "Euibangyoochui(醫方類聚)". Especially, from the poetry of "Sikujip(拭疣集)", contents regarding the proofreading of "Euibangyoochui(醫方類聚)" between Im Won-jun and Kim Su-On shows the publication process of "Euibangyoochui(醫方類聚)" at the reign of King Sungjong. His outstanding achievements are largely due to the medical book-reading officer system implemented around the time "Euibangyoochui (醫方類聚)" was published. The medical book-reading officer system aimed to increase the knowledge of various matters for the civil service bureaucrats, allowing them to become high-ranking officials in the fields of technology. Its another purpose was to compile specialty publications. Many of the civil service bureaucrats who participated in the medical book publications arranged the theoretical basis of medicine and modified experience medicine to a new medical system. The first edition of "Euibangyoochui(醫方類聚)" at King Sejong's reign collected vast medical information into 365 books. Then it was corrected during King Sejo's reign then finally completed and published at King Seongjong's reign. During this period, the experience medicine inherited from Goryeo Dynasty was reestablished into a new form of theoretical interpretation.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.19 no.4
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• pp.71-90
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• 2010

The names of Seokgatab and Dabotab are almost generalized among the people along with Bulguksa the most well-known temple in Korea. But, despite this generalized situation, the names of Seokgatab and Dabotab have not secured the clear standpoint till now. It is because the names of Seokgatab and Dabotab can be found only in the 18C documents like and . More complicatedly, in the record of the Goryeo sarira case found during the dismantling of Seokgatab, the name of Seokgatab was 'Mugujeonggwangtab' or 'Seoseoktab'. This paper is to secure the nominal validity of Seokgatab and Dabotab to remove the confusion due to their names and to raise the efficiency of studies related with Bulguksa in the future. First, their names and the problems related with them were summarized in Chapter 2. Based on this critical consciousness, Chapter 3 deals with the tragedy of Asadal related with the creation of the stone pagodas and its symbolic re-interpretation. In this process, we can see that there could be a viewpoint of the great comprehension in them through the completion of 'the Buddhist Nation'. Then, the architectural features of Seokgatab and Dabotab were analyzed in the ritual view point of . Finally, in Chapter 4, on the basis that the viewpoint of one specific sect can not be predominantly applied in the construction of Buddhist land, it is held that Avatamsaka Idea and Saddharma-pundarika Idea can coexist without any conflict. It is shown in the fact that Seokgatab and Dabotab can make harmony together in the Avatamsaka Idea while keeping their names. With these efforts, we can clearly see that the peculiar titles of Seokgatab and Dabotab can be said to secure sufficient validity.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.28 no.1
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• pp.25-34
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• 2019

"Stupa of Buddhist Monk, YeomGeo"(844) is known as the earliest Seon-stupa relic remains in Korean peninsula, from which, during late Silla and ealy Goryeo period, there were more than 30 of stupa was built on such canon. and became the well-known material culture in Seon Buddhism in late Silla period. In $9^{th}$ century, with the JeonDeong(delivering the light of Seon)from Tang to Silla, the culture of "GeonTapIpBi(building the pagoda and erecting stele)" was also moved in. And it was right after the style of monk's stupa had been methodically changed in china, from having the room in stupa for the corpse, named as "QuanShenSheLi", to the lessened stupa that contain the cremated. Analyzing the "Master ChengGuang's stupa"（807）and its stele, it can be found the correspondences of octagonal plan and the subjects of ornamentation to that of Stupas built in Silla, reveals they were made by the same canon. By the document in the stele, surmising the historical cause of alteration in Chan stupa, there was the most famous zen master ShenHui at the time, who has the most important role of making the NanZongChan to get the authenticity in Chan Buddhism. His reliqury was the first ${\acute{s}}ar{\bar{i}}ra$ casket discovered among Chan monks' relics, consequentially it was to influence to Chan cuture and size the monks 'stupa for his ${\acute{s}}ar{\bar{i}}ra$. The stupa of master ChengGuang, by its shape and geological location, is the lost piece in the Puzzle of Chan stupa culture between Silla and Tang.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.24 no.4
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• pp.29-44
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• 2015

Coastal eupseongs, which are mainly built in the period of late Goryeo and early Joseon period, are essential materials in studying the history of Joseon period eupseongs. The purpose of this study is to connect the annexation of local districts with the relocation of local government office, so as to categorize the types of coastal-eupseongs and examine the background of their constructions and relocations. Coastal eupseongs are mainly divided into 'maintenance type' and 'Mergence type' according to the annexation of local districts, and maintenance type is broken down into fortress type and non-fortress type in accordance with the existence of old eupseongs(fortresses). Coastal eupseongs can also be categorized into 'application type' and 'relocation type' depending on whether ex-local government offices were reutilized or relocated. Maintenance type is 'fortress-application type'(Gimhae Gosung Old Ulsan-eupseong), 'non-fortress-application type'(New Ulsan-eupseong), 'fortress-relocation type'(Dongrae Kijang Geojegohyunseong Ulsan(Jwabyeongyoung)-eupseong), 'non-fortress-relocation type'(Sacheon Hadong Jinhae-eupseong Geojesadeongseong) are differentiated by type. Mergence type is divided into 'Merger of Villages after Castle Relocation Type(Changwon Namhae Gonyang-eupseong)', 'Merger of Villages before Castle Relacation Type(Ungcheon-eupseong)'. Coastal-eupseongs are moved to other places in need of more affluent water supply(Gimhae Gijang-eupseong) and wider usable area(Namhae Gohyunseong-eupseong). Eupseongs were enlarged owing to the population growth, caused by annexations of local districts.(Ungcheon-eupseong) 'Seonso'(navy yard) is a unique feature which cannot be seen in inland eupseongs.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.27 no.3
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• pp.15-26
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• 2018

As a result of reviewing various documents and existing researches, since the late Goryeo period, the most active period in the Ondol(溫突, Korean floor heating system) facilities is the 17th century. The phenomenological reason was recovering the buildings destroyed by the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592(壬辰倭亂) & the Manchu War of 1636(丙子胡亂), but the underlying cause was an abnormal climate in which a pair of summer and winter cold continued. In the 17th century, as the Ondol facilities grew rapidly without distinction between regions and classes, the supply and demand of fuel caused economic and natural environmental problems. And a negative and positive view on Ondol was suggested. Since the middle of the 18th century, when the demand and supply of Ondol reached its peak, which could no longer increase, a new awareness of Ondol began to grow. The room was called the Panbang(板房) and the Ondol, depending on the material that made up the floor. It was considered natural to have the Ondol from this time on. The Incan(因間) and Jo(竈) that were made to burn were started to be recorded as a kitchen, regardless of size and function. Changes in social awareness of Ondol have led to concerns about heating efficiency. A variety of architectural explorations were conducted. Such a search was later realized in concrete architectural form. There is a double Ondoll structure, and the column spacing is reduced compared to the previous one. The heat buffer space is formed around the Ondol room, and the double window can control the light and the air going in and out.

• Conservation Science in Museum
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• v.27
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• pp.147-164
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• 2022

Over 200,000 Korean cultural heritage items are currently located abroad. They have made their way to 22 countries under different circumstances and with unique backgrounds. While some of them continue to contribute to promoting Korean culture around the world, others cannot be exhibited due to damage or poor condition. In view of these circumstances, the Overseas Korean Cultural Heritage Foundation (OKCHF) has since 2013 provided museums and art galleries abroad with support for the conservation, restoration, and utilization of the Korean cultural heritage items that they house. As a part of these efforts and on the occasion of the 120th anniversary of the diplomatic relationship between the Republic of Korea and the Kingdom of Belgium in 2021, a gilt-bronze case for acupuncture needles dating to the Goryeo period (918-1392) from the collection of the Royal Museums of Art and History (RMAH), Belgium was brought to Korea for conservation treatment. The primary purpose of this conservation treatment was to restore the original form of the relic and slow to the degree possible the progress of corrosion. The conservation treatment of the gilt-bronze case followed the fundamental order of conservation treatment: removal of corrosive substances, stabilization, and reinforcement. Since this was the first case of restoring metallic cultural properties under the abovementioned support program by the OKCHF, special methodologies distinct from those available in overseas institutions were required. Diverse scientific methods (e.g., X-ray inspection, CT scanning, 3D microscopy) were applied to identify the metalcraft techniques used in the Goryeo period. The analysis found that several designs, including lotus and scrollwork, were exquisitely engraved on the surface of the case by making dots using a round-edged chisel. A bronze plate engraved with designs was rolled into a cylindrical form. The ends were overlapped by 2 to 3 centimeters and then attached to each other by silver soldering. The overlapping ends were welded flat with nearly no gaps. As the final process in the production, the case was lavishly gilt with gold powder using amalgam gilding. The conservation treatment of the gilt-bronze case for acupunctural needles in the RMAH collection restored the original form of the relic and arrested further corrosion. Above all, it revived the historic and academic value of the overseas Korean cultural heritage through scientific analysis.

• 대한상한금궤의학회지
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• v.13 no.1
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• pp.165-178
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• 2021

Objective: This study aimed to report the improvement of a patient with chronic insomnia who was treated with Baekho-tang based on the Shanghanlun disease pattern identification diagnostic system (DPIDS). Methods: The patient's symptoms were checked on days 19, 37, and 52 after taking Baekho-tang. Chronic insomnia was evaluated by the degree of insomnia, hours spent asleep, and the number of times the patient woke up during the night, which were all assessed by a visual analog scale (VAS) with the Leeds Sleep Evaluation Questionnaire. In addition, new clinical implications for the interpretation of the 350th Shanghanlun provision were reviewed. Results: After administering Baekho-tang for 52 days, based on the 350th Shanghanlun provision according to the DPIDS, the VAS score decreased from 10 to 1. Conclusions: The patient recovered from chronic insomnia. This case report suggests that the words "滑," "厥," and "裏" in the 350th provision of Shanghanlun mean physical and psychological causes of insomnia. In addition, Baekho-tang had a therapeutic effect in improving the chief complaint of the patient. Therefore, the interpretation of the 350th Shanghanlun provision requires a new definition that includes the patient's lifestyle, family conflict, and past history of the patient as a cause of chronic insomnia.