• 수완나부미
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• 제7권2호
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• pp.155-175
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• 2015

This paper will reveal the legacy of women in the Bagan Period (10th to 11th century A.D.) traced through the early evidences of female figures that could only found in the stones of KyaukkuUmin and in the terracotta of Shwesandaw and Phetleik temples. There have been some writings on the women of the Bagan Period from different perspectives. The role of women from the Bagan Period mentioned in different records and as empowerment of Myanmar Women in the past will be analyzed. Through these female images and other unearthed artifacts found in Bagan, portrayals of womanhood in Myanmar early sculpture will be studied. The role of women in the Bagan will be observed by looking closely at what remains of the sculptures, as well as the craftsmanship applied to the works, which are usually in terracotta, wood, or stone.

• 건축역사연구
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• 제25권5호
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• pp.75-86
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• 2016

This paper examines the pagodas during the Bagan period, which are thought to be most valuable among those in Myanmar. They have not been sufficiently studied, in spite of their high Buddhist status. It considers the contemplation of Pato, their formal characteristics in the Bagan period and the formal categorizations of pagodas in the same period. Thus, following seven kinds of conclusions are derived: first, researchers provide opinions to the Pato which should be regarded as the Buddhist shrine-type of pagoda with a unique Bagan form, symbolically indicating that Theravada Buddhism incorporated Hinduism; second, the terraces were characteristic components in pagodas, during the Bagan period, which were built after the enthronement of King Anawratha and are thought to symbolically express the wish to widely spread Theravada Buddhism; third, Shwesandaw Zedi seems to affect not only Shwezigon Zedi, a representative standard form of pagoda in Myanmar, but also Ananda Pato; fourth, it is thought to be proper to examine the terraces by classifying them into lower, central(from pedestals to Angryeon and Bokryeon) and upper part, if it intends to divide a pagoda with bell-shaped body on the terraces during the Bagan period, into three parts; fifth, the Pato may be identified as a form of pagoda during the Bagan period, and such a form can be classified as that of Sikhara on the rectangular terrace; sixth, forms of Myanmar's pagodas can be classified into fourteen kinds of them, and they may be also grouped into transmitted, general and special type; and seventh, on the basis of the findings, it is thought that the pagodas during the Bagan period may be classified into six forms, and they can be largely categorized into transmitted, general and special type.

• 수완나부미
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• 제6권1호
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• pp.67-105
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• 2014

This study focuses on the iconography of Hindu deities in Bagan period. As a country in Southeast Asia, Myanmar received her culture from Indianized culture. As aforesaid, sailors, traders, and settlers brought with them Brahmanism and Buddhism into Myanmar. A possibility is that local chiefs or the rulers invited Brahmans to conduct coronations, weddings, and burials in Brahmanical rites as they will much impressed by the Brahmanical thoughts and beliefs. Accordingly, Brahmanic icons as objects of worship are found quite in number of places, especially in Thaton, Bago, Vesali, Sriksetra, Bagan and Kawgoon. Apart from Buddhist iconography, the Brahmanic icons of various sects can be found in Bagan. Brahmanic deities are illustrated with Buddhist painting, which is a characteristic of Baganreligious iconography. Most of the scenes on Hinduism are to be found in NatlaungKyaung, Nanpaya and Shwesandaw Pagoda. Myanmar people, however, knowingly or unknowingly ignore some features of Indian deitiesand eventually the iconsare found in various places in Bagan.

• 보존과학회지
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• 제35권4호
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• pp.309-316
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• 2019

This study intends to identify manufacturing techniques, including casting and alloy composition, of nine metal Buddha statues excavated from archaeological sites in Bagan, Myanmar. Two Buddha statues from Pyu city state(2^nd to 9^th century) contain Cu-Sn alloy(including <1 wt% Fe), with different relatively high percentages of Sn(16 wt% and 25 wt%) identified from each Buddha statue, and no Pb detected. Five Buddha statues from the Bagan dynasty contain various alloy ratios of Cu-Sn(including <1 wt% Pb), Cu-Sn-Pb, and Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb. All Buddha statues appear to be fabricated by casting, as there is no evidence of other heat treatments. The silver Buddha statue manufactured in the 18^th century includes >1% Cu besides silver with no additional metallic components identified. The bronze Buddha statue manufactured in the Konbaung dynasty(18^th century) is of Cu-Sn-Pb alloy. The Buddha statues of Pyu was alloy of Cu-Sn without Pb including ahigh percentage of The Buddha statues of both the Bagan and Konbaung dynasties are comprised of ternary Cu-Sn-Pb alloys, with a heterogeneous distribution of lead and tin. Some of Buddha statues of the Bagan dynasty have similar alloy ratios as those of Pyu, suggesting that similar manufacturing techniques were used.

• 보존과학회지
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• 제37권4호
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• pp.370-379
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• 2021

In the past, PVAc [poly(vinyl acetate)] was used as a fixative for the conservation of the murals in the murals of the Payathonzu temple located in Bagan, Myanmar. In this study, attention was paid to gel cleaning as a method for stably removing such PVAc fixatives. Based on the recent research trend related to the cleaning of murals in Bagan ruins, 3 types of gelling agents (Nevek^®, Laponite^®RD, Carbopol^®980) and 2 types of organic solvents (Acetone, Dimethyl carbonate) were selected. Six types of gel cleaners were prepared by mixing gelling agents and organic solvents, and the properties and fixative removability of these cleaners were compared. As a result of confirming the properties of the prepared gel cleaners, the pH of the cleaners was all in the weak acidic to weakly alkaline range, which was a stable condition for mural application. Also, there was no difference in the viscosity of the cleaners depending on the type of solvent, but there was a difference depending on the type of gelling agent used. Regarding the weight loss ratio of PVAc, which is an indicator of removability, the exposure conditions of the gel cleaners, the boiling point of the solvent used, and the viscosity of the gelling agent acted as factors affecting. As a result of comparing the removability of gel cleaners, it was confirmed that the solvent's fixative solubility, the volatility of the solvent itself, and the solvent release control properties of the gelling agent had a great effect on the removability of the gel cleaners. In Part 2, the stability and the running applicability of the gel cleaners will be investigated by making mockup samples reflecting the properties of the materials and techniques used to produce the mural paintings in the Payathonzu Temple.

• 보존과학회지
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• 제35권5호
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• pp.494-507
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• 2019

A diagnostic investigation of the conservation state of damaged murals of the Payathonzu temple mainly indicated delamination, exfoliation, and contamination of the coloring layer; cracks and damage to the wall; and separation from gaps. In particular, vulnerabilities resulting from cracks in the wall and damage from gaps demand swift reinforcement measures. Ultrasonic testing uncovered damage caused by gaps between the base layer and plastered wall in several areas of the mural, vulnerable parts in the wall around the cracks, and considerable degradation of the physical properties where cracks and gaps were severe. Moisture measurements identified vast disparities in moisture depending on location even within a single area of the mural, and it was clear that these disparities were the result of environmental conditions such as humidity. Damage to the murals in monument 477 was the most severe, and a diagnostic of the physical properties uncovered severe physical damage to the upper part of the mural as well as to the corridor ceiling, thus presenting the need for conservation treatment utilizing scientific diagnosis as well as objective data.

• 한국광물학회지
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• 제31권4호
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• pp.267-275
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• 2018

본 연구는 미얀마 바간(Bagan)지역 전통 건축물의 벽체 보수에 사용되는 소석회에 대한 광물학적 특성을 분석하고 바간 지역 문화재 수리 현장과 동일한 방법으로 제조한 석회 플라스터의 물리적 특성을 파악하였다. 미얀마 소석회의 X-선 회절 분석과 열분석 결과 포틀랜다이트($Ca(OH)_2$)와 수활석($Mg(OH)_2$)이 주구성광물로 검출되었으며, 이를 통해 석회의 원석으로 백운석($CaMg(CO_3)_2$) 광물의 함량이 높은 탄산염 암석이 사용됐을 것으로 추정된다. 주사전자현미경 분석 결과 미얀마 소석회는 $0.5{\mu}m$ 이상의 불규칙한 형상을 가진 결정들과 소량의 $0.1{\mu}m$ 크기의 판상형 결정들이 응집되어 있고 전체적으로 매끄러운 조직 형태를 관찰할 수 있었는데, 국내에서 건식 소화시킨 소석회와 비교했을 때 결정의 크기나 균일도가 다른 것은 소석회 간 구성광물의 차이와 미얀마 특유의 전통 습식 소화방법에 의한 영향으로 판단된다. 28일 동안 양생한 미얀마 석회 플라스터의 압축강도 값은 평균 $1.13N/mm^2$이며, bale (Aegle marmelos) 열매의 물 추출액을 첨가한 플라스터 시편의 압축강도 값은 평균 $1.03N/mm^2$로 측정되었다. 석회는 장기간 탄산화 과정을 거쳐 강도가 발현되는 기경성 재료이므로 향후 28일 이상 장기 양생을 통해 양생기간별 물리적 특성의 변화 양상을 파악할 필요가 있다.

• 박물관보존과학
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• 제24권
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• pp.117-132
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• 2020

미얀마 바간유적 파야톤주 사원벽화의 채색층은 다양한 요인으로 인해 손상이 발생된 상태이다. 본 연구에서는 미얀마 전통 접착제인 님(Neem) 수지를 대상으로 채색층 고착처리제로서의 적용 가능성을 확인하였다. 대조군으로 소아교와 Paraloid B-72를 선정하였으며, 원 벽화와 유사한 조건의 의사시료를 제작하여 고착제 도포 전·후 및 열화실험에 따른 변화양상을 확인하였다. 연구 결과, 님 수지는 농도가 높아짐에 따라 표면의 얼룩, 황변, 광택 등의 변화가 다른 고착제에 비해 크게 나타났으나, 4% 조건에서는 비교적 적은 변화가 확인되었다. 색도 및 광택도 역시 고착제 도포 전·후로 변화폭이 큰 것으로 확인되나, 다른 농도와 비교했을 때 4% 농도에서 낮은 경향이 확인되었다. 또한 고착강도의 경우, 님 수지의 농도가 높아짐에 따라 다른 고착제에 비해 바탕칠층 및 채색층에 대한 고착 능력이 전반적으로 우수한 점을 알 수 있었다. 따라서 환경요인에 따른 적은 표면변화, 낮은 색차 및 광택도, 우수한 고착강도의 특성들을 보았을 때 님 수지 4%의 조건에서 채색층 고착 처리제로서의 적용 가능성을 확인할 수 있었으며, 이는 향후 파야톤주 사원벽화 보존처리를 위한 기초 자료로 활용될 수 있을 것으로 사료된다.

• 해양환경안전학회지
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• 제26권3호
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• pp.233-241
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• 2020

We examined long-term variations in sea surface temperature (SST) and annual amplitudes of SST around the Korean Peninsula. Two SST data sets with data periods of approximately 51 years and longer than 100 years, respectively, were obtained from the National Institute of Fisheries Science and Japan Meteorological Agency. SST of Korean waters clearly increased during last 51 years (1968-2018), which was 2.5 times higher than the global trend. This significant increasing trend was caused by the dominant increasing SST trend during winter. However, a negative and positive SST anomaly frequently appeared during winter and summer, respectively, in a recent decade. These features of seasonal SST variation have changed the annual amplitude of SST, and resulted in a drastically increasing trend after 2009. Using the longer SST data set, it was revealed that the decreasing SST trend in winter began in the 2000s and the increasing SST trend in summer bagan in the 1990s. During a recent decade, there was a distinctive SST increase in summer, whereas a clear decrease in winter. In summary, the annual amplitude of SST around the Korean Peninsula significantly changed from a decreasing trend to an increasing trend during a recent decade.

• 수완나부미
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• 제13권2호
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• pp.167-186
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• 2021

The Grand Stupa is mentioned in historical text as 'Rajakudakan', which means a royal building with a multitiered superstructure. This Grand Stupa is the principal construction of Wat Chedi Luang, and marks the center of the Chiang Mai City Plan. This study argues that the Grand Stupa was built in 1391 during Phaya Saen Mueang Ma's reign, possibly inspired by the construction of Ku Phaya in Bagan. Thereafter, in 1545, the Grand Stupa's superstructure collapsed after the great earthquake, resulted in the irreparable damage since then. Therefore, a survey using a 3D laser scanner is conducted to collect the most precise data on the current condition of the Grand Stupa, yielding an assumption of its reconstruction. Other simultaneous stupas or those that show a close architectural relationship (e.g. stupas in Wat Chiang Man and Wat Lok Moli and the stupa of King Tilokaraj in Wat Chet Yot in Chiang Mai) are also employed as research frameworks for the reconstruction. As a result, the architectural research on the Grands Stupa, compared with simultaneous stupas, yields a fruitful argument that the pre-collapse superstructure form of the Grand Stupa marks the most architectural similarity to the stupa of Wat Chiang Man.