• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.37 no.1
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• pp.80-86
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• 2013

Korean red ginseng has been shown to possess a variety of biological activities. However, little is known about antiviral activity of ginsenosides of Korean red ginseng. Here, we investigated the protective effect by oral administration of various ginsenosides on the lethal infection of haemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ) in mice. In a lethal infection model in which almost all mice infected with HVJ died within 15 days, the mice were administered orally (per os) with 1 mg/mouse of dammarane-type (ginsenoside-Rb1, -Rb2, -Rd, -Re, and -Rg2) or oleanolic acid-type (ginsenoside-Ro) ginsenosides 3, 2, and 1 d before virus infection. Ginsenoside-Rb2 showed the highest protective activity, although other dammarane-type and oleanolic acid-type ginsenosides also induced a significant protection against HVJ. However, neither the consecutive administration with a lower dosage (300 ${\mu}g$/mouse) nor the single administration of ginsenoside-Rb2 (1 mg/mouse) was active. In comparison of the protective activity between ginsenoside-Rb2 and its two hydrolytic products [20(S)- and 20(R)-ginsenoside-Rg3], 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rg3, but not 20(R)-ginsenoside-Rg3, elicited a partial protection against HVJ. The protective effect of ginsenoside-Rb2 and 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rg3 on HVJ infection was confirmed by the reduction of virus titers in the lungs of HVJ-infected mice. These results suggest that ginsenoside-Rb2 is the most effective among ginsenosides from red ginseng to prevent the lethal infection of HVJ, so that this ginsenoside is a promising candidate as a mucosal immunoadjuvant to enhance antiviral activity.

• Bulletin of the Korean Chemical Society
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• v.22 no.3
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• pp.298-302
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• 2001

A site preference of niobium atom in Rb2-xLa2Ti3-xNbxO10 (0.0 $\leq$ x $\leq1.0)$ and RbLa2-xCaxTi2-xNb1+xO10 (0.0 $\leq$ x $\leq2.0)$, which are the solid-solutions between Rb2La2Ti3O10 and RbCa2Nb3O10, has been investigated by Raman spectroscopy. The Raman spectra of Rb2-xLa2Ti3-xNbxO10 (0.0 $\leq$ x $\leq1.0)$ gave an evidence that niobium atoms substituted for titanium atoms preferably occupy the highly distorted outer octahedral sites rather than the central ones in triple-octahedral perovskite layers. In contrast, the Raman spectra of RbLa2-xCaxTi2-xNb1+xO10 (0.0 $\leq$ x $\leq2.0)$ showed no clear information for the cationic arrangement in perovskite slabs. This difference indicated that a site preference of niobium atoms is observed only when the linear Rb-O-Ti linkage can be replaced by much stronger terminal Nb-O bond with double bond character. From comparison with the Raman spectroscopic behavior of CsLa2-xA’xTi2-xNb1+xO10 (A’ = Ca and Ba; 0.0 $\leqx\leq2.0)$, it is also proposed that a local difference in arrangement of interlayer atoms causes a significantly different solid acidity and photocatalytic activity of the layered perovskite oxides, despite their crystallographically similar structures.

• Journal of the Institute of Electronics Engineers of Korea SD
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• v.37 no.5
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• pp.55-65
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• 2000

In this paper a new architecture of 24-bit two's complement adder is designed by using RB(Redundant Binary) arithmetic which has the advantage of CPF(Carry-Propagation-Free). A MPPL(Modified PPL) XOR/XNOR gate is applied to improve a TC2RB(Two's Complement to RB SUM converter) speed and to reduce the number of transistors, and we proposed two types adder which used a fast RB2TC(RB SUM to Two's Complement converter). The property of two types adder is followings. The improvement of TYPE 1 adder speed is archived through the use of VGS(Variable Group Select) method and TYPE 2 adder is through the use of a 64-bit GCG(Group Change bit Generator) circuit and a 8-bit TYPE 1 adder. For 64-bit, TYPE 1 adder can be expected speed improvement of 23.5%, 25.7% comparing with the CLA and CSA, and TYPE 2 adder can be expected 41.2%, 45.9% respectively. The propagation delay of designed 24-bit TYPE 1 adder is 1.4ns and TYPE 2 adder is 1.2ns. The implementation is highly regular with repeated modules and is very well suited for microprocessor systems and fast DSP units.

• Proceedings of the Ginseng society Conference
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• 2006.05a
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• pp.57-58
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• 2006

Red ginseng is a classical traditional Chinese medicine. Among Chinese herbs, red ginseng has been considered as one of the tonics. Many studies indicated that red ginseng could enhance immune function of the human body. Red ginseng total saponin, ginsenoside, the most important active constituents identified in red ginseng can protect against myocardial ischaemia damage and protect endothelium against electrolysis-induced free radical injury. Macrophages play a significant role in host defense mechanisms. When activated, they inhibit the growth of a wide variety of tumor cells. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of pure ginsenoside Rb1 on immunostimulatory activity such as murine macrophage phagocytosis and proliferation of splenocytes. Furthermore, we investigated the effects of ginsenoside Rb1 on the production of nitric oxide (NO), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1beta, IL-6, and TNF-alpha) in murine macrophage, RAW 264.7 cells. ROS have emerged as important signaling molecules in the regulation of various cellular processes. Ginsenoside Rb1 significantly increased production of ROS in dose dependent manner. As NO plays an important role in immune function, ginsenoside Rb1 treatment could modulate several aspects of host defense mechanisms due to stimulation. Treatment with ginsenoside Rb1 to macrophages induced the production of NO and proinflammatory cytokines and expression levels of these genes in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, incubation of RAW 264.7 cells with ginsenoside Rb1 showed a dose dependent increased phagocytosis activity and lymphocyte proliferation of splenocytes. Therefore, these results suggest that ginsenoside Rb1 has promising potential as a natural medicine for stimulation of the immune system.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.48 no.5
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• pp.481-493
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• 2024

Background: Post-weaning social isolation (SI) reduces sociability, gene expressions including myelin genes in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and alters microbiome compositions in rodent models. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) and its major ginsenoside Rb1 have been reported to affect myelin formation and gut metabolites. However, their effects under post-weaning SI have not been investigated. This study investigated the effects of KRG and Rb1 on sociability, gene expressions in the mPFC, and gut metabolites under post-weaning SI. Methods: C57BL/6J mice were administered with water or KRG (150, 400 mg/kg) or Rb1 (0.1 mg/kg) under SI or regular environment (RE) for 2 weeks during the post-weaning period (P21-P35). After this period, mice underwent a sociability test, and then brains and ceca were collected for qPCR/immunohistochemistry and nontargeted metabolomics, respectively. Results: SI reduced sociability compared to RE; however, KRG (400 mg/kg) and Rb1 significantly restored sociability under SI. In the mPFC, expressions of genes related to myelin, neurotransmitter, and oxidative stress were significantly reduced in mice under SI compared to RE conditions. Under SI, KRG and Rb1 recovered the altered expressions of several genes in the mPFC. In gut metabolomics, 313 metabolites were identified as significant among 3027 detected metabolites. Among the significantly changed metabolites in SI, some were recovered by KRG or Rb1, including metabolites related to stress axis, inflammation, and DNA damage. Conclusion: Altered sociability, gene expression levels in the mPFC, and gut metabolites induced by two weeks of post-weaning SI were at least partially recovered by KRG and Rb1.

• Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology
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• v.22 no.3
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• pp.343-351
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• 2012

In this paper, the kinetics of a cloned special glucosidase, named ginsenosidase type III hydrolyzing 3-O-glucoside of multi-protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type ginsenosides, were investigated. The gene (bgpA) encoding this enzyme was cloned from a Terrabacter ginsenosidimutans strain and then expressed in E. coli cells. Ginsenosidase type III was able to hydrolyze 3-O-glucoside of multi-PPD-type ginsenosides. For instance, it was able to hydrolyze the 3-O-${\beta}$-D-(1${\rightarrow}$2)-glucopyranosyl of Rb1 to gypenoside XVII, and then to further hydrolyze the 3-O-${\beta}$-D-glucopyranosyl of gypenoside XVII to gypenoside LXXV. Similarly, the enzyme could hydrolyze the glucopyranosyls linked to the 3-O-position of Rb2, Rc, Rd, Rb3, and Rg3. With a larger enzyme reaction $K_m$ value, there was a slower enzyme reaction speed; and the larger the enzyme reaction $V_{max}$ value, the faster the enzyme reaction speed was. The $K_m$ values from small to large were 3.85 mM for Rc, 4.08 mM for Rb1, 8.85 mM for Rb3, 9.09 mM for Rb2, 9.70 mM for Rg3(S), 11.4 mM for Rd and 12.9 mM for F2; and $V_{max}$ value from large to small was 23.2 mM/h for Rc, 16.6 mM/h for Rb1, 14.6 mM/h for Rb3, 14.3 mM/h for Rb2, 1.81mM/h for Rg3(S), 1.40 mM/h for Rd, and 0.41 mM/h for F2. According to the $V_{max}$ and $K_m$ values of the ginsenosidase type III, the hydrolysis speed of these substrates by the enzyme was Rc>Rb1>Rb3>Rb2>Rg3(S)>Rd>F2 in order.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.47 no.2
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• pp.337-346
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• 2023

Background: Ginsenoside Rb2, a major active component of Panax ginseng, has various physiological activities, including anticancer and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the mechanisms underlying the rejuvenation effect of Rb2 in human skin cells have not been elucidated. Methods: We performed a senescence-associated β-galactosidase staining assay to confirm cellular senescence in human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs). The regulatory effects of Rb2 on autophagy were evaluated by analyzing the expression of autophagy marker proteins, such as microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain (LC) 3 and p62, using immunoblotting. Autophagosome and autolysosome formation was monitored using transmission electron microscopy. Autophagic flux was analyzed using tandem-labeled GFP-RFP-LC3, and lysosomal function was assessed with Lysotracker. We performed RNA sequencing to identify potential target genes related to HDF rejuvenation mediated by Rb2. To verify the functions of the target genes, we silenced them using shRNAs. Results: Rb2 decreased β-galactosidase activity and altered the expression of cell cycle regulatory proteins in senescent HDFs. Rb2 markedly induced the conversion of LC3-I to LC3-II and LC3 puncta. Moreover, Rb2 increased lysosomal function and red puncta in tandem-labeled GFP-RFP-LC3, which indicate that Rb2 promoted autophagic flux. RNA sequencing data showed that the expression of DNA damage-regulated autophagy modulator 2 (DRAM2) was induced by Rb2. In autophagy signaling, Rb2 activated the AMPK-ULK1 pathway and inactivated mTOR. DRAM2 knockdown inhibited autophagy and Rb2-restored cellular senescence. Conclusion: Rb2 reverses cellular senescence by activating autophagy via the AMPK-mTOR pathway and induction of DRAM2, suggesting that Rb2 might have potential value as an antiaging agent.

• Journal of Life Science
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• v.29 no.5
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• pp.514-523
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• 2019

We investigated the gene expression patterns and the mechanisms of action of the apoptotic response by microarray analysis of human keratinocyte HaCaT cells treated with ginsenoside Rb1, a saponin of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer. Genes related to apoptosis, the G2/M transition of the mitotic cell cycle, cell division, mitotic nuclear division, and intracellular protein transport were 2-fold up-regulated in HaCaT cells treated with the ginsenoside Rb1, whereas genes related to DNA repair, regeneration fission, and extracellular matrix organization were 2-fold down-regulated. Apoptosis signaling may be mediated by FAS and PLA2G4A, and pathway analysis indicated that STAT3 might be an upstream regulator of these genes. The activity of FAS and PLA2G4A was verified by qPCR, which showed that FAS was increased about 2-fold in HaCaT cells treated with $10{\mu}g/ml$ of ginsenoside Rb1 for 24 hr, PLA2G4A was increased about twice after 6 hours, and gene expression was increased more than 2-fold after 24 hr. Knockdown of STAT3 with siRNA decreased FAS expression and increased PLA2G4A expression but only FAS was passed from the upstream regulator STAT3. These results indicate that STAT3, which is an upstream regulator, induces apoptosis via FAS during treatment with ginsenoside Rb1.

• Molecular & Cellular Toxicology
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• v.5 no.2
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• pp.126-132
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• 2009

The usage and types of chemicals are advancing, specializing, large-scaled increasing, and new chemical exposed workers are concerning to occupational disease. The generation of reactive oxygen in the body from carcinogen, mutation and DNA damage in cancer is protected by natural antioxidants (phytochemicals) with antimutagenic effect. There were many reports of ginsenoside Rb$_1$, Rg$_1$ grievances of the genetic mutation to suppress the effect confirm the genetic toxicity test with chromosomal aberration test and the Comet (SCGE) assay confirmed the suppression effect occurring chromosomal DNA damage. We had wanted to evaluate the compatibility and sensitivity between the chromosomal aberration (CA) test and the Comet assay. We used the CA test and Comet assay to evaluate the anti-genotoxicity of ginsenoside Rb$_1$ and Rg$_1$, in CHO-K1 (Chinese hamster ovary fibroblast) cell in vitro, composed negative control (solvent), positive control (benzo[a]pyrene), test group (carcinogen+variety concentration of ginsenoside) group. The positive control was benzo[a]pyrene (50 $\mu$M), well-known carcinogen, and the negative control was the 1 % DMSO solvent. The test group was a variety concentration of ginsenoside Rb$_1$, Rg$_1$ with 10$^{-8}$%, 10$^{-6}$%, 10$^{-4}$%, 10$^{-2}$%, 1%, 10%. In chromo-somal aberration test, we measured the number of cells with abnormally structured chromosome. In Comet assay, the Olive tail moment (OTM) and Tail length (TL) values were measured. The ratio of cell proliferation was increased 8.3% in 10$^{-8}$%, 10$^{-6}$%, 10$^{-4}$%, 10$^{-2}$%, 1%, 10% Rb$_1$ treated groups, and increased 10.4% in 10$^{-10}$%, 10$^{-8}$%, 10$^{-6}$%, 10$^{-4}$%, 10$^{-2}$%, 1% Rg$_1$ treated groups. In the CA test, the number of chromosomal aberration was decreased all the Rb$_1$ and Rg$_1$ treated groups. In the Comet assay, the OTM values were decreased in all the Rb$_1$ and Rg$_1$ treated groups. To evaluate the compatibility between CA and Comet assay, we compared the reducing ratio of chromosomal abnormalities with its OTM values, it was identified the antimutagenicity of ginsenoside, but it was more sensitive the CA test than the Comet assay. Ginsenoside Rb$_1$ and Rg$_1$ significantly decrease the number of cells with chromosomal aberration, and decrease the extent of DNA migration. Therefore, ginsenoside Rb$_1$, Rg$_1$ are thought as an antioxidant phytochemicals to protect mutagenicity. The in vitro Comet assay seems to be less sensitive than the in vitro chromosomal aberration test.

• Korean Journal of Pharmacognosy
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• v.20 no.2
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• pp.123-127
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• 1989

The effects of ginsenosides on the development of morphine induced tolerance and physical dependence were investigated. $Rb_1,\;Rb_2,\;Rg_1\;and\;Re$ inhibited significantly the development of morphine induced tolerance but $Rb_1\;and\;Rg_1$ showed significant inhibitory effect on the naloxone induced withdrawal jumping response. Ginsenosides inhibited the body weight decrease in physically dependent mice during multiple injection of morphine.