Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology

The Korean Society for Microbiology and Biotechnology (한국미생물·생명공학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Current Status of Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Therapeutics, and Vaccines for Novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)

  • Ahn, Dae-Gyun (Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology) ;
  • Shin, Hye-Jin (Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology) ;
  • Kim, Mi-Hwa (Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology) ;
  • Lee, Sunhee (Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology) ;
  • Kim, Hae-Soo (Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology) ;
  • Myoung, Jinjong (Korea Zoonosis Research Institute and Genetic Engineering Research Institute, Jeonbuk National University) ;
  • Kim, Bum-Tae (Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology) ;
  • Kim, Seong-Jun (Center for Convergent Research of Emerging Virus Infection, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology)
  • Received : 2020.03.06
  • Accepted : 2020.03.20
  • Published : 2020.03.28
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which causes serious respiratory illness such as pneumonia and lung failure, was first reported in Wuhan, the capital of Hubei, China. The etiological agent of COVID-19 has been confirmed as a novel coronavirus, now known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is most likely originated from zoonotic coronaviruses, like SARS-CoV, which emerged in 2002. Within a few months of the first report, SARS-CoV-2 had spread across China and worldwide, reaching a pandemic level. As COVID-19 has triggered enormous human casualties and serious economic loss posing global threat, an understanding of the ongoing situation and the development of strategies to contain the virus's spread are urgently needed. Currently, various diagnostic kits to test for COVID-19 are available and several repurposing therapeutics for COVID-19 have shown to be clinically effective. In addition, global institutions and companies have begun to develop vaccines for the prevention of COVID-19. Here, we review the current status of epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and vaccine development for COVID-19.

Keywords

References

  1. Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, et al. 2020. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet 395: 565-574. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8
  2. Gorbalenya AE, Baker SC, Baric RS, de Groot RJ, Drosten C, Gulyaeva AA, et al. 2020. Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: the species and its viruses - a statement of the coronavirus study group. BioRxiv. 20200207: 937862.
  3. Sola I, Almazan F, Zuniga S, Enjuanes L. 2015. Continuous and discontinuous RNA synthesis in coronaviruses. Annu. Rev. Virol. 2: 265-288. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-virology-100114-055218
  4. Fehr AR, Perlman S. 2015. Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis. Methods Mol. Biol. 1282: 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1
  5. Fung TS, Liu DX. 2019. Human coronavirus: host-pathogen interaction. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 73: 529-557. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-micro-020518-115759
  6. Li W, Shi Z, Yu M, Ren W, Smith C, Epstein JH, et al. 2005. Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. Science 310: 676-679. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1118391
  7. Corman VM, Ithete NL, Richards LR, Schoeman MC, Preiser W, Drosten C, et al. 2014. Rooting the phylogenetic tree of middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus by characterization of a conspecific virus from an African bat. J. Virol. 88: 11297-11303. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01498-14
  8. Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. 2020. A pneumonia outbreak as sociated with a n ew coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 259: 270-273.
  9. Ji W, Wang W, Zhao X, Zai J, Li X. 2020. Cross-species transmission of the newly identified coronavirus 2019-nCoV. J. Med. Virol. 92: 433-440. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25682
  10. Did pangolins spread the China coronavirus to people? Available from https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00364-2#ref-CR1. Accessed 28 Feb 2020.
  11. Liu P, Chen W, Chen JP. 2019. Viral Metagenomics Revealed Sendai Virus and Coronavirus Infection of Malayan Pangolins (Manis javanica). Viruses 11. pii: E979.
  12. Graham RL, Donaldson EF, Baric RS. 2013. A decade a fter SARS: strategies for controlling emerging coronaviruses. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 11: 836-848. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro3143
  13. Peiris JS, Lai ST, Poon LL, Guan Y, Yam LY, Lim W, et al. 2003. Coronavirus as a possblie cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Lancet 361: 1319-1325. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13077-2
  14. Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, Shu H, Xia Ja, Liu H, et al. 2020. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a singlecentered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir. Med. pii: S2213-2600(20)30079-5.
  15. Zhang JJ, Dong X, Cao YY, Yuan YD, Yang YB, Yan YQ, et al. 2020. Clinical characteristics of 140 patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 in Wuhan, China. Allergy doi: 10.1111/all.14238. [Epub ahead of print].
  16. Wong ACP, Li X, Lau SKP, Woo PCY. 2019. Global epidemiology of bat coronaviruses. Viruses. 11.
  17. Willman M, Kobasa D, Kindrachuk J. 2019. A comparative analysis of factors influencing two outbreaks of Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome (MERS) in Saudi Arabia and South Korea. Viruses 11. pii: E1119.
  18. Reusken CB, Schilp C, Raj VS, De Bruin E, Kohl RH, Farag EA, et al. 2016. MERS-CoV infection of alpaca in a region where MERS-CoV is endemic. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 22: 1129-1131. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2206.152113
  19. WHO Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) SITUATION REPORT - 1 21 JANUARY 2020. Available from https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situationreports/20200121-sitrep-1-2019-ncov.pdf?sfvrsn=20a99c10_4. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020.
  20. WHO Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Available from https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-covid-19-final-report.pdf. Accessed 02 Mar. 2020.
  21. WHO Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report - 55 (15 Mar 2020). Available from https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situationreports/20200315-sitrep-55-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=33daa5cb_8. Accessed 19 Mar. 2020.
  22. WHO Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report - 26 (15 Feb 2020). Available from https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situationreports/20200215-sitrep-26-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=a4cc6787_2. Accessed 02 Mar 2020.
  23. KCDC COVID-19 situation reports in South Korea (24 Feb 2020) Available from https://www.cdc.go.kr/board/board.es?mid=a20501000000&bid=0015&act=view&list_no=366324&tag=&nPage=1. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020.
  24. KCDC COVID-19 situation reports in South Korea (18 Feb 2020). Available from https://www.cdc.go.kr/board/board.es?mid=a20501000000&bid=0015&act=view&list_no=366228&tag=&nPage=3. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020.
  25. KCDC COVID-19 situation reports in South Korea (01 Mar 2020). Available from https://www.cdc.go.kr/board/board.es?mid=a20501000000&bid=0015&act=view&list_no=366410&tag=&nPage=1. Accessed 02 Mar. 2020.
  26. WHO Summary of probable SARS cases with onset of illness from 1 November 2002 to 31 July 2003. Available from https://www.who.int/csr/sars/country/table2004_04_21/en/. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020.
  27. WHO Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) monthly summary, November 2019. Available from https://www.who.int/emergencies/mers-cov/en/. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020.
  28. Pan X, Chen D, Xia Y, Wu X, Li T, Ou X, et al. 2020. Asymptomatic cases in a family cluster with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Lancet Infect. Dis. pii: S1473-3099.
  29. Bai Y, Yao L, Wei T, Tian F, Jin DY, Chen L, et al. 2020. Presumed Asymptomatic Carrier Transmission of COVID-19. JAMA. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.2565. [Epub ahead of print].
  30. Rothe C, Schunk M, Sothmann P, Bretzel G, Froeschl G, Wallrauch C, et al. 2020. Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany. N. Engl. J. Med. 382: 970-971. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2001468
  31. Chen Y, Chan KH, Kang Y, Chen H, Luk HK, Poon RW, et al. 2015. A sensitive and specific antigen detection assay for Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 4: e26.
  32. Meyer B, Drosten C, Muller MA. 2014. Serological assays for emerging coronaviruses: challenges and pitfalls. Virus Res. 194: 175-183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2014.03.018
  33. Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, et al. 2020. A Novel Coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N. Engl. J. Med. 382: 727-733. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001017
  34. Wang C, Horby PW, Hayden FG, Gao GF. 2020. A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern. Lancet 395: 470-473. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30185-9
  35. Corman VM, Landt O, Kaiser M, Molenkamp R, Meijer A, Chu DKW, et al. 2020. Detection of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by real-time RT-PCR. Euro Surveill. 25. 25(3). doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.
  36. WHO Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) technical guidance: Laboratory testing for 2019-nCoV in humans. Available from https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novelcoronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/laboratory-guidance. Accessed 02 Mar. 2020.
  37. Wang Y, Wang W, Xu L, Zhou X, Shokrollahi E, Felczak K, et al. 2016. Cross talk between nucleotide synthesis pathways with cellular immunity in constraining hepatitis E virus replication. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 60: 2834-2848. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.02700-15
  38. Debing Y, Emerson SU, Wang Y, Pan Q, Balzarini J, Dallmeier K, et al. 2014. Ribavirin inhibits in vitro hepatitis E virus replication through depletion of cellular GTP pools and is moderately synergistic with alpha interferon. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 58: 267-273. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01795-13
  39. Leyssen P, Balzarini J, De Clercq E, Neyts J. 2005. The predominant mechanism by which ribavirin exerts its antiviral activity in vitro against flaviviruses and paramyxoviruses is mediated by inhibition of IMP dehydrogenase. J. Virol. 79: 1943-1947. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.79.3.1943-1947.2005
  40. De Clercq E. 2019. New nucleoside analogues for the treatment of hemorrhagic fever virus infections. Chem. Asian J. 14: 3962-3968. https://doi.org/10.1002/asia.201900841
  41. Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang X, Liu J, Xu M, et al. 2020. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res. 30: 269-271. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41422-020-0282-0
  42. So LK, Lau AC, Yam LY, Cheung TM, Poon E, Yung RW, et al. 2003. Development of a standard treatment protocol for severe acute respiratory syndrome. Lancet 361: 1615-1617. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13265-5
  43. Al-Tawfiq JA, Momattin H, Dib J, Memish ZA. 2014. Ribavirin and interferon therapy in patients infected with the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: an observational study. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 20: 42-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2013.12.003
  44. Zumla A, Chan JF, Azhar EI, Hui DS, Yuen KY. 2016. Coronaviruses - drug discovery and therapeutic options. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 15: 327-347. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd.2015.37
  45. Choy M. 2016. Pharmaceutical approval update. P T. 41: 416-441.
  46. Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Graham RL, Menachery VD, Gralinski LE, Cas e JB, et al. 2017. Broad-spectrum antiviral GS-5734 inhibits both epidemic and zoonotic coronaviruses. Sci. Transl. Med. 9.
  47. Mulangu S, Dodd LE, Davey RT, Jr., Tshiani Mbaya O, Proschan M, Mukadi D, et al. 2019. A Randomized, controlled trial of ebola virus disease therapeutics. N. Engl. J. Med. 381: 2293-2303. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1910993
  48. Holshue ML, DeBolt C, Lindquist S, Lofy KH, Wiesman J, Bruce H, et al. 2020. First Case of 2019 Novel Coronavirus in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 382: 929-936. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001191
  49. Yan Y, Zou Z, Sun Y, Li X, Xu KF, Wei Y, et al. 2013. Antimalaria drug chloroquine is highly effective in treating avian influenza A H5N1 virus infection in an animal model. Cell Res. 23: 300-302. https://doi.org/10.1038/cr.2012.165
  50. Savarino A, Di Trani L, Donatelli I, Cauda R, Cassone A. 2006. New insights into the antiviral effects of chloroquine. Lancet Infect. Dis. 6: 67-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70361-9
  51. Kono M, Tatsumi K, Imai AM, Saito K, Kuriyama T, Shirasawa H. 2008. Inhibition of human coronavirus 229E infection in human epithelial lung cells (L132) by chloroquine: involvement of p38 MAPK and ERK. Antiviral Res. 77: 150-152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.10.011
  52. Vincent MJ, Bergeron E, Benjannet S, Erickson BR, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, et al. 2005. Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread. Virol. J. 2: 69. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-2-69
  53. Keyaerts E, Vijgen L, Maes P, Neyts J, Van Ranst M. 2004. In vitro inhibition of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus by chloroquine. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 323: 264-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.08.085
  54. Savarino A, Boelaert JR, Cassone A, Majori G, Cauda R. 2003. Effects of chloroquine on viral infections: an old drug against today's diseases? Lancet Infect. Dis. 3: 722-727. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00806-5
  55. Gao J, Tian Z, Yang X. 2020. Breakthrough: Chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies. Biosci. Trends 14: 72-73. https://doi.org/10.5582/bst.2020.01047
  56. Wu CY, Jan JT, Ma SH, Kuo CJ, Juan HF, Cheng YS, et al. 2004. Small molecules targeting severe acute respiratory syndrome human coronavirus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101: 10012-10017. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0403596101
  57. Mukherjee P, Desai P, Ross L, White EL, Avery MA. 2008. Structure-based virtual screening against SARS-3CL(pro) to identify novel non-peptidic hits. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 16: 4138-4149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmc.2008.01.011
  58. Chu CM, Cheng VC, Hung IF, Wong MM, Chan KH, Chan KS, et al. 2004. Role of lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of SARS: initial virological and clinical findings. Thorax. 59: 252-256. https://doi.org/10.1136/thorax.2003.012658
  59. Chan KS, Lai ST, Chu CM, Tsui E, Tam CY, Wong MM, et al. 2003. Treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome with lopinavir/ritonavir: a multicentre retrospective matched cohort study. Hong Kong Med. J. 9: 399-406.
  60. MSIT Research projects initiation for drug repositioning study for COVID-19 treatment. Available from https://www.msit.go.kr/web/msipContents/contentsView.do?cateId=_policycom2&artId=2657968. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
  61. Zhang C, Maruggi G, Shan H, Li J. 2019. Advances in mRNA vaccines for infectious diseases. Front Immunol. 10: 594. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.00594
  62. Andre FE. 2001. The future of vaccines, immunisation concepts and practice. Vaccine 19: 2206-2209. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-410X(00)00546-6
  63. Pronker ES, Weenen TC, Commandeur H, Claassen EH, Osterhaus AD. 2013. Risk in vaccine research and development quantified. PLoS One 8: e57755. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057755
  64. Guarner J. 2020. Three emerging coronaviruses in two decades. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 153: 420-421 https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcp/aqaa029
  65. Du L, He Y, Zhou Y, Liu S, Zheng BJ, Jiang S. 2009. The spike protein of SARS-CoV--a target for vaccine and therapeutic development. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 7: 226-236. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2090
  66. Coutard B, Valle C, de Lamballerie X, Canard B, Seidah NG, Decroly E. 2020. The spike glycoprotein of the new coronavirus 2019-nCoV contains a furin-like cleavage site absent in CoV of the same clade. Antiviral Res. 176: 104742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104742
  67. Li F. 2016. Structure, function, and evolution of coronavirus spike proteins. Annu. Rev. Virol. 3: 237-261. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-virology-110615-042301
  68. Sun C, Chen L, Yang J, Luo C, Zhang Y, Li J, et al. 2020. SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV Spike-RBD structure and receptor binding comparison and potential implications on neutralizing antibody and vaccine development. BioRxiv. doi: 10.1101/2020.02.16.951723
  69. He Y, Zhou Y, Liu S, Kou Z, Li W, Farzan M, et al. 2004. Receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV spike protein induces highly potent neutralizing antibodies: implication for developing subunit vaccine. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 324: 773-781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.09.106
  70. Okba NM, Raj VS, Haagmans BL. 2017. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus vaccines: current status and novel approaches. Curr. Opin. Virol. 23: 49-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coviro.2017.03.007
  71. Bisht H, Roberts A, Vogel L, Subbarao K, Moss B. 2005. Neutralizing antibody and protective immunity to SARS coronavirus infection of mice induced by a soluble recombinant polypeptide containing an N-terminal segment of the spike glycoprotein. Virology 334: 160-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2005.01.042
  72. Clover Biopharmaceuticals vaccines programs. Available from http://www.cloverbiopharma.com/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=lists&catid=42. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
  73. CEPI and GSK announce collaboration to strengthen the global effort to develop a vaccine for the 2019-nCoV virus. Available from https://www.gsk.com/en-gb/media/pressreleases/cepi-and-gsk-announce-collaboration-to-strengthenthe-global-effort-to-develop-a-vaccine-for-the-2019-ncov-virus/. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
  74. 'Significant step' in COVID-19 vaccine quest Available from https://www.uq.edu.au/news/article/2020/02/significantstep%E2%80%99-covid-19-vaccine-quest. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
  75. CEPI to fund three progrannes to develop vaccines against the novel coronavirus (nCoV-2019). Available from https://cepi.net/news_cepi/cepi-to-fund-three-programmes-to-developvaccines-against-the-novel-coronavirus-ncov-2019. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
  76. Yang ZY, Kong WP, Huang Y, Roberts A, Murphy BR, Subbarao K, et al. 2004. A DNA vaccine induces SARS coronavirus neutralization and protective immunity in mice. Nature 428: 561-564. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02463
  77. Sardesai NY, Weiner DB. 2011. Electroporation delivery of DNA vaccines: prospects for success. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 23: 421-429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2011.03.008
  78. Inovio Accelerates Timeline for COVID-19 DNA Vaccine INO-4800. Available from http://ir.inovio.com/news-and-media/news/press-release-details/2020/Inovio-Accelerates-Timeline-for-COVID-19-DNA-Vaccine-INO-4800/default.aspx. Accessed 03 Mar. 2020
  79. Inovio's produc pipeline Available from https://www.inovio.com/product-pipeline. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
  80. dMAb Technology platform Available from https://www.inovio.com/technology#dmab. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020.
  81. Pardi N, Hogan MJ, Porter FW, Weissman D. 2018. mRNA vaccines - a new era in vaccinology. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 17: 261-279. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd.2017.243
  82. Moderna's pipeline Available from https://www.modernatx.com/pipeline. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020
  83. mRNA platform: Enabling Drug Discovery & Development Available from https://www.modernatx.com/mrna-technology/mrna-platform-enabling-drug-discovery-development. Accessed 28 Feb. 2020.
  84. hyFc platform. Available from http://www.genexine.com/m21.php. Accessed 20 Feb. 2020
  85. Seo YB, Im SJ, Namkoong H, Kim SW, Choi YW, Kang MC, et al. 2014. Crucial roles of interleukin-7 in the development of T follicular helper cells and in the induction of humoral immunity. J. Virol. 88: 8998-9009. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00534-14
  86. Lee JH, Cho JH, Yeo J, Lee SH, Yang SH, Sung YC, et al. 2013. The pharmacology study of a new recombinant TNF receptor-hyFc fusion protein. Biologicals 41: 77-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biologicals.2012.09.001
  87. Loset GA, Roux KH, Zhu P, Michaelsen TE, Sandlie I. 2004. Differential segmental flexibility and reach dictate the antigen binding mode of chimeric IgD and IgM: implications for the function of the B cell receptor. J. Immunol. 172: 2925-2934. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.172.5.2925
  88. Kang MC, Park HW, Choi DH, Choi YW, Park Y, Sung YC, et al. 2017. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells contribute to the protective immunity induced by intranasal treatment with Fc-fused interleukin-7 against lethal influenza virus infection. Immune Netw. 17: 343-351. https://doi.org/10.4110/in.2017.17.5.343
  89. Tirado SM, Yoon KJ. 2003. Antibody-dependent enhancement of virus infection and disease. Viral Immunol. 16: 69-86. https://doi.org/10.1089/088282403763635465
  90. Khandia R, Munjal A, Dhama K, Karthik K, Tiwari R, Malik YS, et al. 2018. Modulation of Dengue/Zika Virus pathogenicity by antibody-dependent enhancement and strategies to protect against enhancement in Zika Virus infection. Front Immunol. 9: 597. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.00597
  91. Wan Y, Shang J, Sun S, Tai W, Chen J, Geng Q, et al. 2020. Molecular mechanism for antibody-dependent enhancement of coronavirus entry. J. Virol. 94(5). pii: e02015-19.
  92. Wang SF, Tseng SP, Yen CH, Yang JY, Tsao CH, Shen CW, et al. 2014. Antibody-dependent SARS coronavirus infection is mediated by antibodies against spike proteins. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 451: 208-214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.090
  93. Kim TW, Lee JH, Hung CF, Peng S, Roden R, Wang MC, et al. 2004. Generation and characterization of DNA vaccines targeting the nucleocapsid protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J. Virol. 78: 4638-4645. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.78.9.4638-4645.2004
  94. Duffy S. 2018. Why are RNA virus mutation rates so damn high? PLoS Biol. 16: e3000003. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000003
  95. Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. 2 020. A p neumonia outbreak as sociated with a n ew coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 579: 270-273. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7
  96. Yeager C L, A s hmun R A, W illiams RK, C ardellichio C B, Shapiro LH, Look AT, et al. 1992. Human aminopeptidase N is a receptor for human coronavirus 229E. Nature 357: 420-422. https://doi.org/10.1038/357420a0
  97. Hofmann H, Pyrc K, van der Hoek L, Geier M, Berkhout B, Pohlmann S. 2005. Human coronavirus NL63 employs the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus receptor for cellular entry. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102: 7988-7993. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0409465102
  98. Tresnan DB, Levis R, Holmes KV. 1996. Feline aminopeptidase N serves as a receptor for feline, canine, porcine, and human coronaviruses in serogroup I. J. Virol. 70: 8669-8674. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.70.12.8669-8674.1996
  99. Delmas B, Gelfi J, L'Haridon R, Vogel LK, Sjostrom H, Noren O, et al. 1992. Aminopeptidase N is a major receptor for the entero-pathogenic coronavirus TGEV. Nature. 357: 417-420. https://doi.org/10.1038/357417a0
  100. Li W, Moore MJ, Vasilieva N, Sui J, Wong SK, Berne MA, et al. 2003. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus. Nature 426: 450-454. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02145
  101. Raj VS, Mou H, Smits SL, Dekkers DH, Muller MA, Dijkman R, et al. 2013. Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 is a functional receptor for the emerging human coronavirus-EMC. Nature 495: 251-254. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12005
  102. Krempl C, Schultze B, Herrler G. 1995. Analysis of cellular receptors for human coronavirus OC43. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 380: 371-374. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1899-0_60
  103. Huang X, Dong W, Milewska A, Golda A, Qi Y, Zhu QK, et al. 2015. Human coronavirus HKU1 spike protein uses O-acetylated sialic acid as an attachment receptor determinant and employs hemagglutinin-esterase protein as a receptor-destroying enzyme. J. Virol. 89: 7202-7213. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00854-15
  104. Williams RK, Jiang GS, Holmes KV. 1991. Receptor for mouse hepatitis virus is a member of the carcinoembryonic antigen family of glycoproteins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88: 5533-5536. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.88.13.5533

Cited by

  1. COVID-19 presented with syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion(SIADH): A case report from Bangladesh vol.31, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmcr.2020.101290
  2. Acupuncture for breathlessness in COVID-19 : A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis vol.99, pp.27, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000020701
  3. Acupuncture and related interventions for anxiety in coronavirus disease 2019 : A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis vol.99, pp.30, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000021317
  4. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy and safety of western medicine routine treatment combined with Chinese herbal medicine in the treatment of COVID-19 vol.99, pp.32, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000021616
  5. The effect of Baduanjin exercise on the quality of life in patients recovering from COVID-19 : A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis vol.99, pp.37, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000022229
  6. Acupuncture for corona virus disease 2019 : A protocol for systematic review and meta analysis vol.99, pp.40, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000022231
  7. External treatment of traditional Chinese medicine for COVID-19 : A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis vol.99, pp.39, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000022316
  8. Self-Reported Alcohol, Tobacco, and Cannabis Use during COVID-19 Lockdown Measures: Results from a Web-Based Survey vol.26, pp.6, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1159/000510822
  9. SARS-CoV-2 and the COVID-19 disease: a mini review on diagnostic methods vol.62, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1590/s1678-9946202062044
  10. Anosmia and ageusia as initial or unique symptoms after COVID-19 (Review article) vol.65, pp.6, 2020, https://doi.org/10.17116/anaesthesiology202006213
  11. COVID-19 pandemic and lacrimal practice: Multipronged resumption strategies and getting back on our feet vol.68, pp.7, 2020, https://doi.org/10.4103/ijo.ijo_1753_20
  12. COVID-19 in developing countries: A rehabilitation perspective vol.3, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.4103/jisprm.jisprm_12_20
  13. Open Access of COVID-19-related publications in the first quarter of 2020: a preliminary study based in PubMed vol.9, 2020, https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.24136.2
  14. The Landscape of Emerging Randomized Clinical Trial Evidence for COVID-19 Disease Stages: A Systematic Review of Global Trial Registries vol.13, 2020, https://doi.org/10.2147/idr.s288399
  15. Repurposing Drugs, Ongoing Vaccine, and New Therapeutic Development Initiatives Against COVID-19 vol.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.01258
  16. Montelukast Drug May Improve COVID-19 Prognosis: A Review of Evidence vol.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.01344
  17. COVID-19 Outbreak: Pathogenesis, Current Therapies, and Potentials for Future Management vol.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.563478
  18. Toxicity and Immunogenicity of a Tardigrade Cytosolic Abundant Heat Soluble Protein in Mice vol.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.565969
  19. COVID-19 Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors: A Look at the Evidence vol.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.579415
  20. Innate Immune Responses to Highly Pathogenic Coronaviruses and Other Significant Respiratory Viral Infections vol.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01979
  21. Neurological Damage by Coronaviruses: A Catastrophe in the Queue! vol.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.565521
  22. Moderate Fever Cycles as a Potential Mechanism to Protect the Respiratory System in COVID-19 Patients vol.7, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2020.564170
  23. SARS CoV-2 Organotropism Associated Pathogenic Relationship of Gut-Brain Axis and Illness vol.7, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2020.606779
  24. Chlorpromazine as a Potential Antipsychotic Choice in COVID-19 Treatment vol.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.612347
  25. COVID-19 pandemic: an overview of epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostics and potential vaccines and therapeutics vol.11, pp.4, 2020, https://doi.org/10.4155/tde-2020-0035
  26. Hypertension, Thrombosis, Kidney Failure, and Diabetes: Is COVID-19 an Endothelial Disease? A Comprehensive Evaluation of Clinical and Basic Evidence vol.9, pp.5, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9051417
  27. Neurological and Psychological Effects of Coronavirus (COVID-19): An Overview of the Current Era Pandemic vol.12, pp.6, 2020, https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.8460
  28. Strength and Weakness of Molecular Identification Strategies Against Causative Viral Agent from Emerging COVID-19 vol.50, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.4167/jbv.2020.50.2.065
  29. Ethical surgical triage of patients with head and neck cancer during the COVID‐19 pandemic vol.42, pp.7, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1002/hed.26229
  30. Current status of potential therapeutic candidates for the COVID-19 crisis vol.87, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.04.046
  31. COVID-19: How to make between-country comparisons vol.96, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.05.066
  32. Covid-19 : virologie, épidémiologie et diagnostic biologique vol.31, pp.619, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0992-5945(20)30178-1
  33. Exploring Sodium Glucose Co-Transporter-2 (SGLT2) Inhibitors for Organ Protection in COVID-19 vol.9, pp.7, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9072030
  34. Diagnostic Performance of Serological Assays in the Detection of SARS-CoV-2: A Review vol.10, pp.13, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/app10134506
  35. Hospital Course of a Man With Viral Pneumonia Caused by COVID-19 vol.12, pp.7, 2020, https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.9261
  36. Nanotechnology for COVID-19: Therapeutics and Vaccine Research vol.14, pp.7, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c04006
  37. Clinical update on COVID‐19 in pregnancy: A review article vol.46, pp.8, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1111/jog.14321
  38. Impact of COVID-19 mitigation measures on patients with spine disease in Friuli Venezia Giulia vol.64, pp.4, 2020, https://doi.org/10.23736/s0390-5616.20.04973-5
  39. The Impact of the COVID-19 “Infodemic” on Drug-Utilization Behaviors: Implications for Pharmacovigilance vol.43, pp.8, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40264-020-00965-w
  40. Novel insights on the pulmonary vascular consequences of COVID-19 vol.319, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00195.2020
  41. Nurture to nature via COVID-19, a self-regenerating environmental strategy of environment in global context vol.729, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139088
  42. The COVID-19 pandemic vol.57, pp.6, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1080/10408363.2020.1783198
  43. Mesenchymal stromal cells as potential immunomodulatory players in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection vol.12, pp.8, 2020, https://doi.org/10.4252/wjsc.v12.i8.731
  44. SARS-CoV-2의 진단기술 vol.30, pp.8, 2020, https://doi.org/10.5352/jls.2020.30.8.731
  45. COVID-19: An overview of current scenario vol.10, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.5667/cellmed.2020.0021
  46. Control of SARS-CoV-2 transmission in orthodontic practice vol.158, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajodo.2020.05.006
  47. Cardiovascular involvement during COVID-19 and clinical implications in elderly patients. A review vol.57, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amsu.2020.07.054
  48. Tuberculosis in the era of COVID-19 in India vol.14, pp.5, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2020.07.034
  49. SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 et œil : le point sur les données publiées vol.43, pp.7, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfo.2020.05.003
  50. SARS-CoV-2 (Covid-19): Interferon-epsilon may be responsible of decreased mortality in females vol.141, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jri.2020.103154
  51. Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) and the risk of obesity for critically illness and ICU admitted: Meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence vol.14, pp.5, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orcp.2020.07.007
  52. Systemic immunobiological, immunosuppressant, and oncologic agents for the treatment of dermatologic diseases during the SARS‐CoV‐2 (COVID‐19) pandemic emergency: A quick review for vol.33, pp.5, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1111/dth.13537
  53. Nanomedicine as a promising approach for diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis against COVID-19 vol.15, pp.21, 2020, https://doi.org/10.2217/nnm-2020-0247
  54. Investigating Virological, Immunological, and Pathological Avenues to Identify Potential Targets for Developing COVID-19 Treatment and Prevention Strategies vol.8, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8030443
  55. COVID‐19 Screening with Chest CT in Acute Stroke Imaging: A Clinical Decision Model vol.30, pp.5, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1111/jon.12746
  56. Serodiagnostics for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Related Coronavirus 2 : A Narrative Review vol.173, pp.6, 2020, https://doi.org/10.7326/m20-2854
  57. COVID-19: A Great Mime or a Trigger Event of Autoimmune Manifestations? vol.16, 2020, https://doi.org/10.2174/1573397116666201005122603
  58. Implementation of field hospital pharmacy services during the COVID-19 pandemic vol.77, pp.19, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajhp/zxaa211
  59. 국내 중증 급성 호흡기 증후군 코로나 바이러스의 검사실 내 진단: 현재, 한계점 그리고 직면한 과제 vol.52, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.15324/kjcls.2020.52.3.284
  60. Diabetes Mellitus is Associated with Severe Infection and Mortality in Patients with COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis vol.51, pp.7, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcmed.2020.07.005
  61. Point of view: Should COVID-19 patients be supplemented with vitamin D? vol.140, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2020.06.003
  62. EMMPRIN/BASIGIN as a biological modulator of oral cancer and COVID-19 interaction: Novel propositions vol.143, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110089
  63. Recurrence or Relapse of COVID‐19 in Older Patients: A Description of Three Cases vol.68, pp.10, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.16728
  64. SARS-CoV-2 pathophysiology and assessment of coronaviruses in CNS diseases with a focus on therapeutic targets vol.1866, pp.10, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2020.165889
  65. Partnerships as an Avenue to Translate Emerging Disease Ecology of SARS-CoV-2 to Agricultural Groups vol.25, pp.4, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1080/1059924x.2020.1815626
  66. Information on COVID-19 and Psychological Distress in a Sample of Non-Health Workers during the Pandemic Period vol.17, pp.19, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17196982
  67. SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Children: Special Considerations vol.49, pp.10, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3928/19382359-20200919-01
  68. COVID-19 epidemic: a special focus on diagnosis, complications, and management vol.13, pp.10, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1080/17512433.2020.1821651
  69. Molecular docking reveals the potential of Cleome amblyocarpa isolated compounds to inhibit COVID-19 virus main protease vol.44, pp.39, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1039/d0nj03611k
  70. Viral Related Tools against SARS-CoV-2 vol.12, pp.10, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/v12101172
  71. The Influence of COVID-19 Isolation on Physical Activity Habits and Its Relationship with Convergence Insufficiency vol.17, pp.20, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207406
  72. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 IgG Targeting Nucleocapsid or Spike Protein by Four High-Throughput Immunoassays Authorized for Emergency Use vol.58, pp.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.01742-20
  73. Analysis of the WHO ICTRP for novel coronavirus clinical trial registrations vol.99, pp.43, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000022840
  74. Gastrointestinal and hepatic manifestations of COVID-19 infection: Lessons for practitioners vol.8, pp.5, 2020, https://doi.org/10.13105/wjma.v8.i5.348
  75. COVID‐19 in a patient with HIV infection vol.92, pp.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26049
  76. SARS-CoV-2 pharmacologic therapies and their safety/effectiveness according to level of evidence vol.38, pp.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2020.08.091
  77. Autoinflammatory and autoimmune conditions at the crossroad of COVID-19 vol.114, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaut.2020.102506
  78. Vitamin D and survival in COVID-19 patients: A quasi-experimental study vol.204, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105771
  79. Deciphering the co-adaptation of codon usage between respiratory coronaviruses and their human host uncovers candidate therapeutics for COVID-19 vol.85, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104471
  80. Could imiquimod (Aldara 5% cream) or other TLR7 agonists be used in the treatment of COVID-19? vol.144, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110202
  81. Acute kidney injury is associated with severe infection and fatality in patients with COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 40 studies and 24,527 patients vol.161, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2020.105107
  82. SARS-CoV-2 host tropism: An in silico analysis of the main cellular factors vol.289, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198154
  83. A novel simple scoring model for predicting severity of patients with SARS‐CoV‐2 infection vol.67, pp.6, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.13651
  84. Vitamin D Supplementation Associated to Better Survival in Hospitalized Frail Elderly COVID-19 Patients: The GERIA-COVID Quasi-Experimental Study vol.12, pp.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113377
  85. Progress in the diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19 and the role of surgeons in the front line of the pandemic vol.50, pp.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00595-020-02090-8
  86. A review of vaccine effects on women in light of the COVID-19 pandemic vol.59, pp.6, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tjog.2020.09.006
  87. Fragile heroes. The psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on health-care workers in Italy vol.15, pp.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242538
  88. An Overview on Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Fabricated with Additive Manufacturing Technologies in the Era of COVID-19 Pandemic vol.12, pp.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12112703
  89. Molecular mechanisms involved in the positive effects of physical activity on coping with COVID-19 vol.120, pp.12, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-020-04484-5
  90. Drug targets for COVID-19 therapeutics: Ongoing global efforts vol.45, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12038-020-00067-w
  91. Update and Recommendations for Ocular Manifestations of COVID-19 in Adults and Children: A Narrative Review vol.9, pp.4, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40123-020-00310-5
  92. Interaction of small molecules with the SARS-CoV-2 main protease in silico and in vitro validation of potential lead compounds using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay vol.89, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2020.107408
  93. Novel SARS-CoV-2 outbreak and COVID19 disease; a systemic review on the global pandemic vol.7, pp.4, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gendis.2020.06.004
  94. Nucleic acid and antibody assay results in Chinese patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vol.89, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2020.107089
  95. Discovery of human coronaviruses pan-papain-like protease inhibitors using computational approaches vol.10, pp.6, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpha.2020.08.012
  96. The association between statewide vaping prevalence and COVID-19 vol.20, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2020.101254
  97. Exploring active ingredients and function mechanisms of Ephedra-bitter almond for prevention and treatment of Corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) based on network pharmacology vol.13, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13040-020-00229-4
  98. Human menstrual blood-derived stem cells mitigate bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis through anti-apoptosis and anti-inflammatory effects vol.11, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13287-020-01926-x
  99. Reopening of dental clinics during SARS-CoV-2 pandemic: an evidence-based review of literature for clinical interventions vol.42, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40902-020-00268-1
  100. Therapeutic potential of mesenchymal stem cells and their exosomes in severe novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases vol.40, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1186/s41232-020-00121-y
  101. COVID-19 - Recent advancements in identifying novel vaccine candidates and current status of upcoming SARS-CoV-2 vaccines vol.16, pp.12, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2020.1788310
  102. Global scenario, public health concerns and mitigation strategies to counter current ongoing SARS-CoV-2 / COVID-19 pandemic vol.16, pp.12, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2020.1810496
  103. The efficacy and safety of Xuebijing injection for corona virus disease 2019 : A protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis vol.99, pp.49, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000023401
  104. Assessment of Infection Risk Factors and the Effectiveness of Anti-Epidemic Measures to Prevent the Spread of COVID-19 Coronavirus Infection among Employees of the Moscow Aviation Hub Airport vol.75, pp.5, 2020, https://doi.org/10.15690/vramn1427
  105. Chikungunya Virus nsP2 Impairs MDA5/RIG-I-Mediated Induction of NF-κB Promoter Activation: A Potential Target for Virus-Specific Therapeutics vol.30, pp.12, 2020, https://doi.org/10.4014/jmb.2012.12005
  106. Assessment of the effects of Liuzijue Qigong on the lung function of COVID-19 patients during disease recovery : A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis vol.100, pp.31, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000026866
  107. Baduanjin exercise can alleviate anxiety and depression of patients with COVID-19 in Square cabin hospital : A cross-sectional survey vol.100, pp.32, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000026898
  108. Challenges in Urology during the COVID-19 Pandemic vol.105, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1159/000512880
  109. Prevalence of insomnia and anxiety among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in Jilin Province vol.54, pp.9, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1590/1414-431x2020e10602
  110. Perceptions and Attitudes Toward the Use of a Mobile Health App for Remote Monitoring of Gingivitis and Willingness to Pay for Mobile Health Apps (Part 3): Mixed Methods Study vol.5, pp.10, 2020, https://doi.org/10.2196/26125
  111. Estimating the Proportion of COVID-19 Contacts Among Households Based on Individuals With Myocardial Infarction History: Cross-sectional Telephone Survey vol.5, pp.4, 2021, https://doi.org/10.2196/26955
  112. Rabdomyolysis as a serious complication of COVID-19 vol.8, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3934/bioeng.2021015
  113. Psychosocial impact of COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare workers in India & their perceptions on the way forward - A qualitative study vol.153, pp.5, 2021, https://doi.org/10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_2204_21
  114. A Multiple-Hit Hypothesis Involving Reactive Oxygen Species and Myeloperoxidase Explains Clinical Deterioration and Fatality in COVID-19 vol.17, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.51811
  115. Microstructure, pathophysiology, and potential therapeutics of COVID‐19: A comprehensive review vol.93, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26254
  116. Review of Clinical and Operative Recommendations for Ophthalmology Practices During the COVID-19 Pandemic vol.3, pp.1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1007/s42399-020-00633-1
  117. Systematic review with meta-analysis of the accuracy of diagnostic tests for COVID-19 vol.49, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2020.07.011
  118. Recent insights for the emerging COVID-19: Drug discovery, therapeutic options and vaccine development vol.16, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajps.2020.06.001
  119. Emerging from the other end: Key measures for a successful COVID-19 lockdown exit strategy and the potential contribution of pharmacists vol.17, pp.1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2020.05.011
  120. Could Oral Phosphodiesterase 5 Inhibitors Have a Potential Adjuvant Role in Combating COVID-19 Infection? vol.9, pp.1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sxmr.2020.08.006
  121. Spine Surgery in Italy in the COVID-19 Era: Proposal for Assessing and Responding to the Regional State of Emergency vol.145, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2020.08.001
  122. Dalbavancin binds ACE2 to block its interaction with SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and is effective in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 infection in animal models vol.31, pp.1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41422-020-00450-0
  123. Knowledge, attitude, and utilization of drugs toward COVID-19 pandemic among Bale Zone residents, Southeast Ethiopia vol.9, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1177/20503121211034384
  124. A Sonographer’s Step-by-Step Approach for Preventing Transmission of COVID-19 vol.37, pp.1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1177/8756479320959035
  125. COVID-19: mask efficacy is dependent on both fabric and fit vol.16, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.2217/fmb-2020-0292
  126. Markers Associated with COVID-19 Susceptibility, Resistance, and Severity vol.13, pp.1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3390/v13010045
  127. High-speed large-scale automated isolation of SARS-CoV-2 from clinical samples using miniaturized co-culture coupled to high-content screening vol.27, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2020.09.018
  128. Assessing correlations between short-term exposure to atmospheric pollutants and COVID-19 spread in all Italian territorial areas vol.268, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115714
  129. Effects of hypertension on the outcomes of COVID-19: a multicentre retrospective cohort study vol.53, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2021.1931957
  130. Evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 with a biophysical perspective vol.35, pp.1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1080/13102818.2021.1885997
  131. BCG Vaccine-Induced Trained Immunity and COVID-19: Protective or Bystander? vol.14, 2020, https://doi.org/10.2147/idr.s300162
  132. Perceptions of Romanian Physicians on Lockdowns for COVID-19 Prevention vol.9, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9010095
  133. nCov2019: an R package for studying the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic vol.9, 2020, https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.11421
  134. In silico allicin induced S-thioallylation of SARS-CoV-2 main protease vol.42, pp.1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1080/17415993.2020.1817457
  135. Factors Affecting the Incidence, Progression, and Severity of COVID-19 in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus vol.2021, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/1676914
  136. Whole-Transcriptome RNA Sequencing Reveals Significant Differentially Expressed mRNAs, miRNAs, and lncRNAs and Related Regulating Biological Pathways in the Peripheral Blood of COVID-19 Patients vol.2021, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6635925
  137. Provision of Endodontic Treatment in Dentistry amid COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Clinical Recommendations vol.2021, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8963168
  138. Genetic Algorithm-Based Computed Tomography Image Analysis for the Diagnosis and Mental Health of COVID-19 Patients in Early Low-Incidence Areas vol.2021, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/2297206
  139. Prognostic Value of a Clinical Biochemistry-Based Nomogram for Coronavirus Disease 2019 vol.7, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2020.597791
  140. A Scoping Insight on Potential Prophylactics, Vaccines and Therapeutic Weaponry for the Ongoing Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic- A Comprehensive Review vol.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.590154
  141. Understanding Gene Expression and Transcriptome Profiling of COVID-19: An Initiative Towards the Mapping of Protective Immunity Genes Against SARS-CoV-2 Infection vol.12, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.724936
  142. Pathogenic Mechanisms of Vaccine-Induced Immune Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia in People Receiving Anti-COVID-19 Adenoviral-Based Vaccines: A Proposal vol.12, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.728513
  143. The self-psychological safety maintenance and its influencing factors of community frontline staff during COVID-19 pandemic vol.100, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000024140
  144. Coronavirus Disease 2019-Related Stigma in China: A Descriptive Study vol.12, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.694988
  145. Association of Ethnicity With Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children Related to SARS-CoV-2 Infection: An International Case-Referent Study vol.9, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2021.707650
  146. Early Fever Is Associated With Clinical Outcomes in Patients With Coronavirus Disease vol.9, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.712190
  147. Identifying the Subtypes and Characteristics of Mental Workload Among Chinese Physicians in Outpatient Practice: A Latent Profile Analysis vol.9, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.779262
  148. The impact of socioeconomic status on 30‐day mortality in hospitalized patients with COVID‐19 infection vol.93, pp.2, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26371
  149. Bee products as a source of promising therapeutic and chemoprophylaxis strategies against COVID‐19 (SARS‐CoV‐2) vol.35, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6872
  150. Cholesterol, lipoproteins, and COVID-19: Basic concepts and clinical applications vol.1866, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2020.158849
  151. Optical coherence tomography angiography analysis of the retina in patients recovered from COVID-19: a case-control study vol.56, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcjo.2020.11.006
  152. COVID-19 and congenital heart disease: an insight of pathophysiology and associated risks vol.31, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1017/s1047951120003741
  153. Protocol for a patient-reported experience measures (PREMs) survey of patients discharged during the COVID-19 pandemic and their family caregivers vol.11, pp.2, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-047033
  154. Protocol for a patient-reported experience measures (PREMs) survey of patients discharged during the COVID-19 pandemic and their family caregivers vol.11, pp.2, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-047033
  155. Screening and Molecular Modeling Evaluation of Food Peptides to Inhibit Key Targets of COVID-19 Virus vol.11, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11020330
  156. Neurological Consequences of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Concurrence of Treatment-Induced Neuropsychiatric Adverse Events in COVID-19 Patients: Navigating the Uncharted vol.8, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2021.627723
  157. Willingness to Receive SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination and Associated Factors among Chinese Adults: A Cross Sectional Survey vol.18, pp.4, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041993
  158. COVID‐19 pneumonia in a patient with sarcoidosis: A case report vol.9, pp.2, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1002/ccr3.3684
  159. COVID-19 in the autopsy room-requirements, safety, recommendations and pathological findings vol.17, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12024-020-00341-1
  160. Mental health outcomes among patients from Fangcang shelter hospitals exposed to coronavirus disease 2019: An observational cross-sectional study vol.7, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cdtm.2020.12.001
  161. Clinical study of pulmonary CT lesions and associated bronchiectasis in 115 convalescent patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) in China vol.99, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1139/cjpp-2020-0522
  162. Ocular surface assessment in times of sanitary crisis: What lessons and solutions for the present and the future? vol.31, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1177/1120672120978881
  163. CETSA MS Profiling for a Comparative Assessment of FDA-Approved Antivirals Repurposed for COVID-19 Therapy Identifies TRIP13 as a Remdesivir Off-Target vol.26, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1177/2472555220973597
  164. Analysis of the Clinical and Epidemiological Meaning of Screening Test for SARS-CoV-2: Considerations in the Chronic Kidney Disease Patients during the COVID-19 Pandemic vol.10, pp.5, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10051139
  165. Target Product Profile Analysis of COVID-19 Vaccines in Phase III Clinical Trials and Beyond: An Early 2021 Perspective vol.13, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/v13030418
  166. Targeting novel structural and functional features of coronavirus protease nsp5 (3CLpro, Mpro) in the age of COVID-19 vol.102, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1099/jgv.0.001558
  167. Paper-Based Multiplex Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Detection Using Polymerase Chain Reaction Probe Codification vol.93, pp.8, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.0c05285
  168. Bacteria‐Based Cancer Immunotherapy vol.8, pp.7, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202003572
  169. The life at the times of coronavirus vol.27, pp.suppl, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1111/odi.13453
  170. Cefaclor Monohydrate-Loaded Colon-Targeted Nanoparticles for Use in COVID-19 Dependent Coinfections and Intestinal Symptoms: Formulation, Characterization, Release Kinetics, and Antimicrobial Activity vol.19, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1089/adt.2020.1014
  171. How to Understand Herd Immunity in the Context of COVID-19 vol.34, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1089/vim.2020.0195
  172. Role of biochemical markers in the monitoring of COVID-19 patients vol.40, pp.2, 2021, https://doi.org/10.5937/jomb0-29341
  173. Prognostic bioindicators in severe COVID-19 patients vol.141, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2021.155455
  174. Mental workload of frontline nurses aiding in the COVID‐19 pandemic: A latent profile analysis vol.77, pp.5, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.14769
  175. The experience of social and emotional distancing among health care providers in the context of COVID-19: A study from North India vol.31, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2020.1792385
  176. COVID-19: Where is the treatment? vol.12, pp.5, 2021, https://doi.org/10.5306/wjco.v12.i5.309
  177. Sinus and anterior skull base surgery during the COVID-19 pandemic: systematic review, synthesis and YO-IFOS position vol.278, pp.6, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-020-06236-9
  178. Prophylactic effects of probiotics on respiratory viruses including COVID-19: a review vol.30, pp.6, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-021-00913-z
  179. Focused role of nanoparticles against COVID-19: Diagnosis and treatment vol.34, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2021.102287
  180. The association between micronutrient and hemogram values and prognostic factors in COVID‐19 patients: A single‐center experience from Turkey vol.75, pp.6, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcp.14078
  181. Analysis of Key Factors of a SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination Program: A Mathematical Modeling Approach vol.2, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/epidemiologia2020012
  182. Recent updates in COVID-19 with emphasis on inhalation therapeutics: Nanostructured and targeting systems vol.63, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2021.102435
  183. COVID-19 and Diabetes Mellitus: A Complex Interplay vol.15, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.22207/jpam.15.2.16
  184. An Immunoinformatics Approach for SARS-CoV-2 in Latam Populations and Multi-Epitope Vaccine Candidate Directed towards the World’s Population vol.9, pp.6, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9060581
  185. TLR4 as a therapeutic target for respiratory and neurological complications of SARS-CoV-2 vol.25, pp.6, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1080/14728222.2021.1918103
  186. Oral Health In Patients With COVID-19: A Literature Review vol.10, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.15275/rusomj.2021.0212
  187. COVID-19: A Comprehensive Review of Epidemiology and Public Health System Response in Nordic Region vol.51, pp.3, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1177/0020731421994840
  188. Perceived Stress and Increased Food Consumption during the ‘Third Wave’ of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Spain vol.13, pp.7, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13072380
  189. Food irradiation: Effect of ionizing and non-ionizing radiations on preservation of fruits and vegetables– a review vol.114, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.06.002
  190. Dimethyl sulfoxide reduces the stability but enhances catalytic activity of the main SARS‐CoV‐2 protease 3CLpro vol.35, pp.8, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.202100994
  191. The COVID-19 Effect on the Immune System and Mitochondrial Dynamics in Diabetes, Obesity, and Dementia vol.27, pp.4, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858420960443
  192. Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Mental Health of Nurses and Auxiliary Nursing Care Technicians-A Voluntary Online Survey vol.18, pp.16, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168310
  193. Wastewater Based Epidemiology Perspective as a Faster Protocol for Detecting Coronavirus RNA in Human Populations: A Review with Specific Reference to SARS-CoV-2 Virus vol.10, pp.8, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10081008
  194. Next-Generation Bioinformatics Approaches and Resources for Coronavirus Vaccine Discovery and Development-A Perspective Review vol.9, pp.8, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9080812
  195. Effect of SARS-CoV-2 Mutations on the Efficacy of Antibody Therapy and Response to Vaccines vol.9, pp.8, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9080914
  196. Potential effectiveness and adverse implications of repurposing doxycycline in COVID-19 treatment vol.19, pp.8, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2021.1865803
  197. Inhalable nanovaccine with biomimetic coronavirus structure to trigger mucosal immunity of respiratory tract against COVID-19 vol.418, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.129392
  198. SSRIs: Applications in inflammatory lung disease and implications for COVID‐19 vol.41, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1002/npr2.12194
  199. SARS-CoV-2: A Professional and social gamechanger - Medical and dental aspects vol.32, pp.5, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-6440202104144
  200. Analysis of Delayed Vaccination Regimens: A Mathematical Modeling Approach vol.2, pp.3, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/epidemiologia2030021
  201. Mesenchymal Stromal Cells: Potential Option for COVID-19 Treatment vol.13, pp.9, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics13091481
  202. Three-Month Pulmonary Function and Radiological Outcomes in COVID-19 Survivors: A Longitudinal Patient Cohort Study vol.8, pp.9, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofaa540
  203. QT interval and repolarization dispersion changes during the administration of hydroxychloroquine/chloroquine with/without azithromycin in early COVID 19 pandemic: A prospective observational study fr vol.37, pp.5, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1002/joa3.12623
  204. Association of Vitamin D Status with COVID-19 Infection and Mortality in the Asia Pacific region: A Cross-Sectional Study vol.36, pp.4, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12291-020-00950-1
  205. A comprehensive review of COVID-19 biology, diagnostics, therapeutics, and disease impacting the central nervous system vol.27, pp.5, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13365-021-00998-6
  206. Encephalopathy at admission predicts adverse outcomes in patients with SARS‐CoV‐2 infection vol.27, pp.10, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1111/cns.13687
  207. Molecular Insights on the Possible Role of Annexin A2 in COVID-19 Pathogenesis and Post-Infection Complications vol.22, pp.20, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222011028
  208. Viral Kinetics of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 vol.9, pp.2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.00793-21
  209. COVID Health Structure Index: The Vulnerability of Brazilian Microregions vol.158, pp.1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-021-02699-3
  210. Prognostic value of neutrophil‐to‐lymphocyte ratio in COVID‐19 patients: A systematic review and meta‐analysis vol.75, pp.11, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcp.14596
  211. The effect of the response to the coronavirus disease pandemic on treatment outcomes in patients with lymphoma and multiple myeloma vol.36, pp.6, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3904/kjim.2021.186
  212. Clinical and hospitalisation predictors of COVID-19 in the first month of the pandemic, Portugal vol.16, pp.11, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260249
  213. Anthocyanin derivatives as potent inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 main protease: An in-silico perspective of therapeutic targets against COVID-19 pandemic vol.39, pp.16, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1080/07391102.2020.1801510
  214. Suicide due to fear of COVID-19, in the last month of pregnancy, leads to neonatal seizure: A case report vol.72, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amsu.2021.103119
  215. A comprehensive review on efficient approaches for combating coronaviruses vol.144, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112353
  216. T-cell receptor repertoires as potential diagnostic markers for patients with COVID-19 vol.113, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2021.10.033
  217. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on older adults living in long-term care centers in Thailand, and risk factors for post-traumatic stress, depression, and anxiety vol.295, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.08.044
  218. The characteristics and implications of epidemic reports during COVID-19 in the United States vol.3, pp.2, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2021.07.001
  219. Immunological evaluation of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in rhesus macaques vol.23, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.omtm.2021.08.005
  220. Near-physiological-temperature serial crystallography reveals conformations of SARS-CoV-2 main protease active site for improved drug repurposing vol.29, pp.12, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.str.2021.07.007
  221. Epidemiological analysis of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 transmission in the community: an individual-based model vol.11, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84893-4
  222. A comprehensive evaluation of early potential risk factors for disease aggravation in patients with COVID-19 vol.11, pp.1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87413-6
  223. Clinical course and risk factors of fatal adverse outcomes in COVID-19 patients in Korea: a nationwide retrospective cohort study vol.11, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-89548-y
  224. Follow-up of COVID-19 recovered patients with mild disease vol.11, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-92717-8
  225. Effect of COVID-19 on epidemiological characteristics of road traffic injuries in Suzhou: a retrospective study vol.21, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-021-00483-7
  226. Clinical features and outcomes of COVID-19 and dengue co-infection: a systematic review vol.21, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-021-06409-9
  227. Online dental teaching practices during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional online survey from China vol.21, pp.1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-021-01547-7
  228. Post-discharge telephonic follow-up of pediatric patients affected by SARS-CoV2 infection in a single Italianpediatric COVID center: a safe and feasible way to monitor children after hospitalization vol.47, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-021-01065-w
  229. Therapeutic role of corticosteroids in COVID-19: a systematic review of registered clinical trials vol.7, pp.1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1186/s43094-021-00217-3
  230. THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON THE ORTHOPEDIC CARE SYSTEM IN A PRIVATE HOSPITAL vol.29, pp.6, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-785220212906245348
  231. COVID-19: comprehensive review on mutations and current vaccines vol.204, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00203-021-02606-x
  232. Carbon nanotubes in COVID-19: A critical review and prospects vol.46, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colcom.2021.100544
  233. Alcohol use disorder in the COVID‐19 era: Position paper of the Italian Society on Alcohol (SIA) vol.27, pp.1, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1111/adb.13090
  234. A case study of complex disasters within the resilience framework in Zagreb, Croatia: Two earthquakes in one pandemic vol.204, pp.no.pb, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112079
  235. Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectroscopy for prostate cancer diagnosis: A review vol.37, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2021.102690