• Horticultural Science & Technology
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• v.35 no.4
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• pp.402-409
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• 2017

We performed seed germination tests to investigate the effects of seed sowing orientation on germination viability on peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) sprouts. Specifically, we assessed the influence of seed sowing orientation on germination rate, seedling weight, and seedling length, as well as the seedling vigor index. The seeds were sown in oak tree sawdust at 3.0 cm depth. Four seed orientations were tested: vertical with the hypocotyl end down, vertical with the hypocotyl end up, horizontal with the hypocotyl end down, and horizontal with the hypocotyl end up. The mean seed germination percentages of the four seed orientations were significantly different (p < 0.01) and ranged from 25 to 91.7%. The vertical orientation with hypocotyl-end-down and hypocotyl-end-up orientations showed the highest (91.7%) and lowest (25%) germination rates, respectively. The vertical orientation with the hypocotyl end down produced the heaviest (4.9 g) seedlings and the longest hypocotyls (4.65 cm). This orientation also produced the longest true leaf + epycotyl (2.15 cm) and had the highest seedling vigor index (197.1). The seedlings had a straight growth pattern, whereas seedlings from seeds sown with the hypocotyl up had an awkward plumular hook shape. Taken together, to produce peanut sprouts, we recommend placing the seeds vertically with the hypocotyl end down because this orientation leads to a high germination rate, high biomass production, and high overall seedling quality.

• Korean Journal of Plant Resources
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• v.20 no.5
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• pp.442-445
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• 2007

Seedlings height of hybrids varied depending on mating combinations. Among the progenies from the mating combination, P. thunbergii(CN4)$\times$P. densiflora(KW29) showed the best plant growth. The mean height of this combination was 521 cm at the age of 8 years(yrs), which was 9% higher than rest of the crosses. Seedlings height of progenies using P. thunbergii(JN37) as mother tree showed 28%, 33%, and 29% higher than those of open-pollinated progenies of the mother tree at the ages of 4yrs, 6yrs, and 8yrs, respectively. On the other hand, using P. densiflora (KB5) as father tree showed 45%, 48%, and 32% higher than those of open-pollinated progenies of the father tree. This result may be caused by hybrid vigor.

• Journal of Forest and Environmental Science
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• v.28 no.2
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• pp.63-67
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• 2012

Crown ratio is the ratio of live crown length to tree height. It is often used as an important predictor variable for tree growth equation. It indicates tree vigor and is a useful parameter in forest health assessment. The objective of the study was to develop crown ratio prediction models for Tectona grandis. Based on the data set from the temporary sample plots, several non linear equations including logistics, Chapman Richard and exponential functions were tested. These functions were evaluated in terms of coefficient of determination ($R^2$) and standard error of the estimate (SEE). The significance of the estimated parameters was also verified. Plot of residuals against estimated crown ratios were observed. Although the logistic model had the highest $R^2$ and the least SEE, Chapman-Richard and Exponential functions were observed to be more consistent in their predictive ability; and were therefore recommended for predicting crown ratio in the stand.

• Korean Journal of Soil Science and Fertilizer
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• v.49 no.5
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• pp.577-583
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• 2016

Small-sized persimmons produced by high crop load are better accepted in the export markets. However, maintaining high crop load frequently results in weakness of tree vigor, deterioration of fruit quality, and increase of the risks for alternate bearing. This experiment was conducted to determine the combined effects of fertilization rate and leaf-fruit (L/F) ratio on container-grown 3-year-old 'Fuyu' persimmon trees. Application of 3.6-g N, 2.1-g $P_2O_5$, 2.7-g $K_2O$, 2.7-g CaO, and 0.6-g MgO was for the control fertilization rate (CF) and that of a 3-fold CF was for the high fertilization rate (HF). Commercial fertilizers were surface-applied to a container on July 6, July 17, and August 10 in three equal aliquots. Single tree for each fertilization rate was assigned for 12 L/F ratios (5, 6.3, 7.7, 9, 10.4, 13, 15.5, 18, 21, 24, 27, and 33) mostly by fruit thinning or rarely by defoliation on July 1. HF did not affect the yield, weight and soluble solids of the fruits but decreased skin color. As L/F ratio increased, yield decreased but average weight, skin color, and soluble solids of fruits increased. With HF, N and K concentrations in leaves, fruits, and shoots increased to some extent but soluble sugars in dormant shoots decreased. Many shoots were cold-injured with low L/F ratio especially at the HF. HF did not increase number of flower buds the next spring either on a shoot or on a tree basis but increased shoot length, compared with the CF. Increasing L/F ratio markedly increased number of flower buds and shoot growth the following year at both fertilization rates. Therefore, an appropriate combination of fertilization rate and L/F ratio should be necessary to maintain stable fruit production and tree vigor at high crop load.

• Korean Journal of Environmental Agriculture
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• v.42 no.3
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• pp.239-252
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• 2023

Most apple trees in South Korea are grafted on M.9 and M.26 rootstocks; however, these rootstocks are susceptible to fire blight. Although M.7 rootstocks are moderately resistant to fire blight, they tend to exhibit excessive vigor, which is unsuitable for high-density planting, unless weak cultivars are used. This study investigated the vegetative growth, yield, and fruit quality of apple trees grafted onto M.7, M.9, or M.26 rootstocks to assess the feasibility of establishing high-density apple orchards domestically using the M.7 rootstock a period of seven years (1-7 years after planting). Rootstocks were tested using three cultivars with contrasting induced vigor and harvesting times: vigorous and late-maturing 'Fuji,' moderate vigor and middle-maturing 'Hongro,' and low vigor and early-maturing 'Sansa.' The planting density was maintained constant, with 190 trees per 10 a. Primary thinning (leaving only the king fruit on clusters) was performed, whereas secondary thinning (controlling crop load) was not. Vegetative growth, accumulated yield per 10 a, and yield efficiency varied depending on cultivars and rootstocks; however, the cultivars had a more notable effect on fruit quality than the rootstocks. Biennial bearing often occurred in the M.26 rootstock. 'Fuji'/M.7 was overly vigorous for high-density planting. The fruit quality and accumulated yield per 10 a of M.7 were similar to those of M.9 with the 'Hongro' and 'Sansa' cultivars. In particular, 'Hongro'/M.7 did not show tree vigor reduction due to heavy crop load, and the degree of biennial bearing in 'Sansa'/M.7 was not particularly high. These results indicated that high-density apple planting using the M.7 rootstock was achievable using the 'Hongro' and 'Sansa' cultivars.

• Advances in environmental research
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• v.3 no.3
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• pp.207-216
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• 2014

A study was conducted to determine the phytotoxic effect of mercury on seed germination and seedling growth of an important arid legume tree Albizia lebbeck. The seeds germination and seedling growth performance of A. lebbeck responded differently to mercuric chloride treatment (1 mM, 3 mM, 5 mM and 7 mM) as compared to control. Seed germination of A. lebbeck was significantly (p < 0.05) affected by mercury treatment at 1 mM. Root growth of A. lebbeck was not significantly affected by mercury treatment at 1 mM, and 3 mM. Shoot and root length of A. lebbeck were significantly (p < 0.05) affected by 5 mM concentration of mercury treatment. Increase in concentration of mercury treatment at 5 mM and 7 mM significantly (p < 0.05) reduced seedling dry weight of A. lebbeck. The treatment of mercury at 1 mM decreased high percentage of seed germination (22%), seedling length (10%), root length (21.85%) and seedling dry weight (9%). Highest decrease in seed germination (51%), seedling (34%), root length (48%) and seedling dry weight (41%) of A. lebbeck occurred at 7 mM mercury treatment. A. lebbeck showed high percentage of tolerance (78.14%) to mercury at 1 mM. However, 7 mM concentration of mercury produced lowest percentage of tolerance (51.65%) in A. lebbeck. The seed germination potential and seedling vigor index (SVI) clearly decreased with the higher level of mercury. Plantation of A. lebbeck in mercury-polluted area will help in reducing the burden of mercury pollution. A. lebbeck can serve better in coordinating in land management programs in metal contaminated areas. The identification of the toxic concentration of metals and tolerance indices of A. lebbeck would also be helpful for the establishment of air quality standard.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.31 no.1
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• pp.98-107
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• 2013

Big and old trees in the scenic spots with the attributes of remote villas are vulnerable to man-made damages and very sensitive to the external environment such as soil conditions, so the corresponding management plans are required. Thus this study has been conducted to survey the big and old trees in the scenic remote villas and suggest the ideal management plans. The results can be summarized as follows. First, regarding the tree heath above the ground, transformation of tree, death of branches, and death of barks are closely related to tree vigor. Particularly, the areas receiving many visitors require prompt countermeasures against the dried and dead tress above the ground and the areas in which dried and dead tress occurred and also the safety measures for the visitors and facilities. Second, regarding the soil environment, visitor traffic is closely related to the tree vigor. In 15 remote villa gardens, 64% of trees are exposed to heavy traffic and the tree vigor has declined due to an increase of visitor. Thus, there is a need to give positive consideration the installation of the complementary facilities and the plantation of herbal plants in the congested areas to form the ground surface that can tolerate the heavy visitor traffic. Third, remote gardens are in general located adjacent to ponds and mountain streams and thus the trees in the waterfront areas require the prompt countermeasures against the decline of growth due to the excess-moisture in the soil. Further the blockage of the sewage system due to the heavy rains dampens the surrounding soil, which results in lethal damages to the trees. Thus, there is a need of the maintenance of the waterfront areas and sewage system before and after the rainy season. In addition, there is a need to establish medium-long term management polices through the recognition of the importance of the main trees of remote villa gardens in scenic spots and prepare the tree management manual depending on the attributes of the corresponding areas. I strongly suggest making manuals for the systematic management as well as the extensive PR activities and education for the preservation of tress on a long-term basis; and furthermore securing the budget and manpower for the research and development of a systematic management system.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.42 no.1
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• pp.88-99
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• 2009

This study was conducted to formulate management guidelines for Natural monumental old trees in Korea through survey of tree vigor and analysis of growing environments. A total of 20 old trees designated as natural monuments in Seoul, Incheon, and Gyeonggi Province were surveyed. The biological characteristics were surveyed with 4 items of species, ages and height of trees. The surrounding environments were surveyed with 2 items of location types and surroundings. The root conditions were surveyed with 2 items of denudation and molding depth. The health conditions were surveyed with 5 items of withering rate, cavity size, bark breakaway rate, damages by blight and insects, and growing tips. The soil conditions were surveyed with 6 items of PH, organic contents, valid phosphoric acid, transposal cations(K, Ca) and soil compaction. On the basis of outcomes of these research items, mutual relations among locations, growings and soil conditions of old trees were analyzed by carring out cross tabulation, correlation, and simple and multiple regression. Management guidelines were presented searching the factors effecting on the health of the monumental old trees. On the biological characteristics, the old trees designated as natural monuments were Pinus bungeana(4 trees), Juniperus chinensis(3 trees), Ginkgo biloba(3 trees), Poncirus trifoliata(2 trees). Actinidia arguta, Wisteria floribunda, Thuja orientalis, Quercus mongolica, Sophora japonica, Fraxinus rhynchophylla, Zelkova serrata, and Pinus densiflora. The tree height ranged from 4.2 to 39.2m, and root collar rounds ranged from 1.01 to 15.2m. On the surrounding environments, The location types ; Gardens(4), historical sites(5), residental sections(3) open agricultural fields(3), mountain hills(3), and near ocean beaches(1) and stream site(1). The surroundings ; 75% denudation of roots, molded more than 10cm except 4 trees(25%). On the health conditions, 1)Withering rate ; Ginkgo biloba(20%) in Yongmoon temple, (5%) in Saki-ri, kanwha-gun, and others had no withering rate. 2) Cavity size ; all subject had $5{\sim}100cm^3$ of cavity. 3) Bark breakaway rate ; Pinus bungeana in Soosong-dong, in the shrine of Confucius, in Samchung-dong, especially high rate of cavity(5~50%) in Seoul area and in Saki-ri, Kangwha-gun were high 45% brakeaway rate. 4) Damages by blight and insects was slight due to managements. 5Growing tips ; In cases of Juniperus chinensis in Changdeok palace and SunnogDang, seoul, growing tips were 1/2, presumably cause by air pollution, and in cases of Fraxinus rhynchophylla in Paju city and Pinus densiflora in BacksaDorip-ri, Icheon city, growing tips were fine, presumably because there were no moldings. On the Soil conditions, Soil pH ranged from 5.2 to 8.3, organic matter contents from 12% to 56%, phosphorus contents from 104 to 618ppm, soil compaction ranged from 7 to 28mm( among them, Denudation was severe with 21~28mm soil compactions in cases of Pinus bungeana in Soosong -dong, Thuja orientalis in Samchung -dong, Ginkgo biloba in the shrine of Confucius and in Yongmoon temple.) Results of cross tabulation, correlation, and regression analysis showed that molding depth was the most serious factor to deteriorate the tree vigor and cambium conductivity. In addition, soil acidity, organic matter contents, disease and insect damages and cambial detachment were also related to the tree vigor. Additional research of these relationships will be needed to conduct more detailed studies. Based on the relationships between the tree vigor and growing environments, it is considered that old trees should be managed to give them more growing spaces and less abuses. Also, molded soils should be removed and further soil-molding around the tree collar should be prohibited. For the construction of systematic management and removal of harmful factors, appropriative management according to spices, persistent monitering of damaged cases and construction of management system through the accumulation of data on the relationships of soil conditions are required.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.30 no.1
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• pp.125-134
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• 2012

This study is determined by tree vigor of analyzing of each object's growth condition in Locational Characteristics and compare the result with impediment extent rate in crown area to provide the management Study about the influence of man-made structures in numbers of protected trees. 68 places where are in the list of Kimpo protected trees were researched in Natural environments, vital degree of trees, number of trees. Crown area was calculated surveying it around the directions of North, East, South and West branching out. Impediment in the area was analyzed after classified into artificial impediment like paved surface(ascon, concrete, block, etc.), a building and a breast wall and natural impediment like soil, stonework and gravel and conclusions are as follow. In analyzing of natural environments, he ground where protected trees have located is consist of 72.05 of manmade structure and artificial in all. There are many protected trees which have less space than crown area for growth suggested by Woo-kyung Sim and Se-kyun Shin in 1992. And it was analyzed that making growth space for protected trees and management of impediment are urgently needed because of that the proportion of impediment covering the crown area has increased as cities are becoming more urbanized results in transforming of trees and weakness of tree vigor. This research shows that under 20% of in crown area is tree vigor determination 1-2 grade 21-50% under is 2-3 grade, higher than 50% is 3-5 grade. More impediment have more difficulty for growing, with the management of root system of protected trees need to be under 20% of rate of land is necessary was improved. As follows are suggested about the standard of management in artificial impediment which influence the number of trees. Firstly, impediment in crown area must be restricted under 20%, but in case outside of the area is not artificial the rate could be higher considerable. Secondly, protected trees growth space secured as much as crown area and impediment must be installed outside the crown area. Thirdly, to move the protected trees, condition of growth space secure must be considered. Fourthly, to develope land, the area around protected trees should be utilized in a park, the area of impediment installation in crown area should be limited as well. Fifthly, As many shown in previous research, for the improvement of old big trees and protected trees, need the tax favor of landowner and purchase of around land, to manage, it needs the budget of local government and advice of expert. Also the study on how various kind of impediment nearby protected trees influence on them has to be continued.

• Korean Journal of Environmental Agriculture
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• v.37 no.2
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• pp.87-96
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• 2018

BACKGROUND: The vigorous shoot growth in upper part of apple tree canopy leads to poor fruit quality and flower bud formation in lower part of canopy. So, this study was conducted to develop the proper control method about the shoot growth in upper part of apple tree canopy. METHODS AND RESULTS: Trunks of 'Fuji'/M9 apple trees were cut (back pruned) to 2.5 m in tree height on 11 February (dormant) or 12 April (full bloom). Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) was applied at 2.0% to cut surface when trunk was pruned. Prohexadione-calcium (Pro-Ca) was sprayed at 250 mg/L above 2.0 m in tree height at 23 April (petal fall). The NAA or Pro-Ca application after trunk was pruned at dormant (TR-2 and TR-3) significantly reduced shoot growth in upper part of canopy compared with the control (tree was only pruned at dormant, TR-1), but the percent of shoots showing the secondary growth of TR-3 was higher over 2 times than that of TR-2. The reduction of shoot growth in upper part of canopy by TR-2 and TR-3 increased the fruit red color from the lower part in the treating year and blooming of the lower part in the following year. CONCLUSION: Applying 2.0% NAA to cut surface of pruned apple trunk at dormant was the most effective way for stabilization of the tree vigor in upper part of the canopy in a high density apple orchard.