• The Journal of the Petrological Society of Korea
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• v.24 no.3
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• pp.181-191
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• 2015

The Bakseok of Geunjeongjeon Hall in Gyeongbokgung Palace is platy floor stone acting as drainage, protected glaring and sliding. The Bakseoks were composed of anisotropic medium-grained biotite granite with a weak myrmekitic texture. Interpretation of transportation process for the Bakseok and original granite provenance trace of and analyze of identity based on ancient writings and detail field survey. As a result, the very similar granite with the Bakseok in lithology, composition mineral, texture and geochemical characteristics was found around Mt. Nakgasan in the Seokmodo Island. There were interpreted stonework process of the Bakseok used exfoliation granite dome with physical weathering properties in Seokmodo Island, to get platy stone economically stonework at the state level as a minimized on burden of supply and men power.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.47 no.1
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• pp.66-81
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• 2014

Burnt down during the Imjin War(壬辰倭亂) of 1592, Gyeongbokgung Palace(景福宮) remained in ruins until 1865, when in the second year of King Gojong's(高宗) reign, reconstruction work began. At the time, a royal protocol(uigwe, 儀軌) for the reconstruction was not produced. Instead, the Gyeongbokgung Palace Construction Diary(Gyeongbokgung yeonggeon ilgi, 景福宮營建日記) records the reconstruction process from June to September of 1865. The contents of this diary reveal that the stone used in the construction was obtained from Ganghwa(江華), the Yeongpung field(映楓亭) just beyond Dongdaemun, and Samcheongdong(三淸洞), among other sites. In addition, selected stone remaining from the original Gyeongbokgung Palace site - such as that from the palace astronomical observatory(ganuidae, 簡儀臺) - as reused, while a number of buildings and stonework from Gyeonghuigung Palace(慶熙宮) were moved to Gyeongbokgung Palace. As a result, a number of $17^{th}$ and $18^{th}$ century stonework are currently located at Gyeongbokgung Palace. The Gyeongbokgung Palace Construction Diary contains a record indicating that the bronze dragon(靑銅龍) excavated from the lotus pond at the palace's Gyeonghoeru Pavilion(慶會樓) was created by special technician byeolganyeok(別看役) Kim Jae-su(金在洙) in 1865 for the symbolic purpose of protecting the palace from fire. The diary also reveals that among Kim Jae-su and the other special technicians(byeolganyeok) tasked with the installation and oversight of the palace stonework was Lee Se-ok(李世玉) - aid to have created the haechi statue at Gwanghwamun Gate. This indicates that there were men of court painter(hwawon, 畵員) background among the construction special technicians(byeolganyeok). Moreover, the diary records the names of the stoneworkers(seokjang, 石匠) who worked under these special technicians to actually carve the stonework. These included Jang Seong-bok(張聖福), who participated in the creation of the Geunjeongjeon Hall(勤政殿); and Kim Jin-myeong(金振明), who took part in the construction of Gwanghwamun Gate(光化門). Based on these results, it is possible to identify a number of special iconographic features of the scale-covered animal form(insuhyeong, 鱗獸形) auspicious animal statues at Gyeongbokgung Palace. These include a protruding mouth and large nose, formalized ears, and a mane along the back. Comparing these iconographic features with those found in the stonework of Joseon tombs makes it clear that these palace statues were created in the latter half of the $19^{th}$ century - the period corresponding to Gojong's palace reconstruction. This study was able to confirm that this iconography was taken up by the Gyeongbokgung Palace construction special technicians(byeolganyeok) and stoneworkers(seokjang) as they worked on tomb stonework earlier in their careers.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.41 no.1
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• pp.47-55
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• 2023

In this study, the following conclusions were drawn by analyzing the size, proportion, shape, angle, distribution, etc. of stones in order to identify the principles of facade molding of stonework of the 5th to 7th centuries of the Silla Dynasty. First, the uniformity of the size of the stones of the stone foundations of the Silla Dynasty was low at -0.8 to 4.1. This means that stones of various sizes were used, from small stones to large stones. In addition, the distribution of large stones in stonework of the Silla Dynasty appeared evenly regardless of height. This was common in the stonework of the Silla Dynasty, regardless of structural classification such as wells and mountain fortresses. It is thought that the Silla people did not only pursue practicality and efficiency in stone construction, but also considered design elements. Second, the proportional deviation of the stones of the stone walls of the Silla Dynasty was high, ranging from 0.861 to 1.515. This means that the stonework of the Silla Dynasty did not use only long flagstone-shaped stones, but used a mixture of long and short stones. Third, the shape average of the stones of the stonework of the Silla Dynasty was low at 0.45, and the shape deviation was high at the maximum of 0.15. This means that the stones as a whole have irregular shapes, and each stone has a high difference in shape. Fourth, the angle deviation of the stones of the Silla Dynasty was 4.3 to 16.2, and the average angle was 2. This means that the angle of each stone on the stone axis of the Silla Dynasty is tilted to the left and right. Fifth, there was no correlation between stone size, slenderness ratio, shape, and angle in the stone axes of the Silla Dynasty. In the case of stone axes in the Joseon Dynasty, there was a positive correlation between stone size and slenderness, and a negative correlation between stone size and shape. It can be said that the stones of the Joseon Dynasty were relatively standardized, but the Silla Dynasty showed the beauty of moderation by keeping the nature of the material and becoming one with the material.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.34 no.4
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• pp.1-13
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• 2016

The Back garden in Wanggung-ri Site, Iksan clearly presents an aspect of the landscape gardening techniques of the Baekje, which are significantly unique in the landscape gardening history of East Asia as the structure connected to the main garden through a complex waterway system on a hill. The rear garden has a complex waterway system comprising a large inverted U-shape waterway and its branch waterways, sinuous waterway and water catchment system to enhance the landscape effect with a minimum amount of water on a hill, reducing damage by floods in the case of heavy rain and securing the amount of water required by the main space in the palace. A landscape element using various kinds and sizes of oddly shaped rocks decorated the water catchment area inside or around the large inverted U-shape waterway. On the top of the hill, the center in the Back garden, a building site in the size of 4 Kans each on the front and side was made on a square base surrounded by a round base stone. The building was identified on a space partially surrounded by the rectangular stonework on the left and right slope of the hill. While the functions and roles of the rectangular stonework are not accurately identified due to the poor conditions of the present site, the stonework may be related to the building inside it. The back garden in Wanggung-ri Site, Iksan has a winding pond-shaped waterway to pull or push water into or out of the garden in a rectangular pond shape, which was a conventional landscape gardening technique during the Baekje period. Since the main garden and the back garden in Wanggung-ri Site, Iksan form a systematic connection system, this paper tried to newly establish the main garden inside Iksan Wanggungseong as the 'royal garden'.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.32 no.3
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• pp.1-9
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• 2014

This article is the results of excavation data and it aims to interpret the composition facilities of the Royal garden at the Wanggung-ri site. The base of research was prepared through excavation and study on the royal garden at the Wanggung-ri site, which was constructed in Sa-bi period of Baek-je. The elements for the royal garden at the Wanggung-ri site were divided in 3 parts. - 1) Stonework facility 2) Installation for conveyance of water : Large moat-shaped ditch and Winding waterway(1~6 and water catchment) 3) Square cornerstone building. In this article, I arrange the basic data about facilities and function of the royal garden for making recovery of original form. First of all, I reason that stonework facilities were in charge to make space for catchment and boundary. Especially the Round angel rectangular stonework facility took charge of complex roles as catchment and water conveyance, and water can be transferred to the large moat-shaped ditch through joint between them. I confirmed that the round angel rectangular stonework facility and the large moat-shaped ditch which were connected by joint are one of the facilities in the royal garden. The large moat-shaped ditch protected the eastern, the northern walls and workshop site under the inclined plane to minimize the damage. Also, the large moat-shaped ditch took several roles, especially water catchments and landscaping. The large moat-shaped ditch was continually used from the period of Baek-je to the unified Silla, as a result it was completely deposited inside. After that, the 6 winding waterway were built in the western inclined plane with similar needs with the large moat-shaped ditch, and the square cornerstone building was built in same time. I noticed that the square cornerstone building was built as a part of the royal garden in Sa-bi period of Baek-je through the remains of Baek-je tiles around the building. After that, the square cornerstone building was built in same place as reconstruction.

• Publications of The Korean Astronomical Society
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• v.28 no.2
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• pp.25-36
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• 2013

Chumsungdae is an ancient astronomical observatory whose main role was doing 'chunmoon'. It was administrate by a royal advisory agency on state affairs. The observers observed the heaven on the observatory platform, recorded peculiar events, and watched and interpreted the signs displayed in the heaven. Chumsungdae is an stonemasonry which represents almanac principles with its peculiar shapes and the numbers of strata and stones. The numbers were thoroughly invented to match exactly the almanac constants. Chumsungdae is comprised largely of three main parts, namely the square base, the stratified cylindrical body, and the top #-shaped stonework, and the total number of stones is 404. The number of the strata (27) and the height of the cylindrical body (27 尺) stand for the days in a sidereal month (27.3 days), which implies that the motion of the Moon with respect to the stars was given more priority than to the Sun at that time of geocentricism. And the cylindrical body was thoroughly designed to consist of 365 stones, which is of course the number of days in a solar year. In addition, there are 12 strata each under and above the south entrance and this in sum makes the 24 divisions of the year. Also there is 182 stones below the 13th stratum and this represents the number of days in the winter ~ summer solstice period, and the rest 183 stones the vice versa. The #-shaped top stonework was aligned in such a way that one of the diagonals points the direction of sunrise on the winter solstice. The square base also layed with the same manner. The south entrance was built 16 degrees SE, and the upright direction of the right pillar stone coincides with the meridian circle. This was a kind of built-in standard meridian circle facilitating the observations. In a symbolic sense, Chumsungdae was thought as the tunnel reaching the heaven, where the observers wished to be enlightened with the signs and inspirations in need. With the craftsmanship and skill, the builder reinforced the stratified cylindrical body with two sets of #-shaped beam stones, piercing at a right angle at 19th ~ 20th and 25th ~ 26th strata. Likewise, by placing the double #-shaped stonework with 8 beam stones on the platform of the observatory, both the stability of the stonemasonry and a guard rail for the nightly observers were securely provided.

• 한국문화재보존과학회:학술대회논문집
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• 2005.11a
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• pp.100-103
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• 2005

Lichens play an important role in breaking down rocks physically and chemically. Physical weathering occurs mechanically through hyphae and rhizines growing into the rocks. Lichen substances such as oxalic acid, acidic polysaccharides and depsides may assist altering rocks chemically. These actions partly contribute to soil formation but prove harmful for the substratum. Some people do not like to keep lichens on stained glassof churches or on gravestones mainly because of its unglamorous appearance. A biocide, 'Koretrel', is very effective in removing lichens and blue-green algae from the surface of concrete. After spraying 'Koretrel' in the open air, lichens (Caloplaca sp., Endocarpon petrolepideum, Physciella melanchra, Phaeophyscia hispidula, etc.) growing on buildings died within three months and peeled off fromthe substratum. One year after treatment, concrete surfaces were almost lichen free for three or four years. The biocide makesuse of a kind of lichen substance and harmless both for substances and environment. Our recent experiments show that it is also useful for water grasses growing on the surface of an aqueduct of a hydroelectric power station.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.28 no.5
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• pp.43-58
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• 2019

After the study of Fujishima Gaijiro(1930), although it is common to see that the Tang-ruler(唐尺) was used in the construction of the Silla Sacheonwangsa temple(679), the basis of the discrimination of the construction measure and the detection of the unit length is not actually sufficient since conventional research was done before the excavation. The study was based on archaeological results, which was secured through the excavation research(2006~2012) of the temple site in recent years, to determine the construction measure and try to detect the unit length. In the analysis of the measured value of the ruins, the numerical data were obtained through measurements on drawings of the ruins, the tendency of conversion measure's number appearing by dividing each unit length of the Goguryeo-ruler(高句麗尺) and Tang-ruler within a certain range was compared from the Wansu-je(完數制) viewpoint. The research results are summarized as follows : 1)As a result of the analysis of the distance between the site's center, the case that conversion Cheok's(尺) number is converged to the unit of Jang(丈) within the range of unit length expresses three times more in Tang-ruler, and it is confirmed that a simple multiple relationship based on the unit of Jang is established between conversion Cheok's number. 2)As a result of analysis of Bokan(梁間) of the each Corridor site and the measured value of the stonework ruins, it could be confirmed that appears overwhelmingly in the Tang-ruler when conversion Cheok's number becomes an integer within the range of unit length. The results of the analysis are judged to be a clear basis for viewing the Tang-ruler as the construction measure of the Sacheonwangsa temple. 3)The estimated unit lengths of the construction measure that were obtained from the analysis of the distance between the site'scenter, the foundation stone center distance of the building site and the measured value of the stonework ruins are slightly different. There is a limit to the verification of the construction error about this, however it is difficult to specify, it is mentioned 294.37mm which is obtained from the analysis of the distance between the site's center.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.24 no.4
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• pp.7-18
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• 2015

Gwanghwamun was dismantled and displaced to the east side of the palace, at that time, the Chosun Government General Building was constructed in the Gyeongbokgung palace. After the Korea war, it remained as a stonework as a result of the fire. In 1968, The Gwanghwamun came back in front of the palace. Then, why it was rebuilt in the 3rd Republic period? What was the reason for selecting concrete? Since the May 16 coup, the military regime had been utilized palace and surrounding urban space to show a visible practice of modernization. Attempting the combination of modern technology in the 1960s and traditional cultural property and reconstructing a city as a pretext called Cultural Heritage conservation was a typical mechanism of the 1960s. In this study, I start by assume that reconstructing Gwanghwamun(1968) was a part of project to change the surrounding urban space of Gwanghwamun than to preserve cultural assets. Two main contributions of the study are following. First, I collect availabe data on the reconstructing surrounding urban space of the Gwanghwamun and re-organize them in chronological order to make them as fragments of a map. Second, I analysis and identify the nature and phase of the Gwanghwamun reconstruction.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.4 no.2 s.8
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• pp.25-44
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• 1995

Bricks are the earliest man-made building materials. Small-size bar bricks were found in use in the Warring States Period(戰國時代) in China. During the Qin(秦) and the Han(漢) Dynasties, brick constructions were built on a larger scale, but most of them were tombs. In case of Korea, bricks were found in use in the Three Kingdoms Period, but also most of them were tombs. Starting from the Unified Silla Period(統一新羅時代), brick gradually became a universal practice to built Buddhist Pagodas with bar bricks. Brick pagodas emergence marked a stage where technological progress made it possible for man to built high-rise brick work, and their dvelopment further perfected masonry technique and enabled building technology to attain new heights. Though from the very start brick pagodas existed side by side with stone pagodas, at the enitial stage they were overshadowed by their wooden counterparts and stone counterparts, because masonry thechiques were then still rather primitive, while woodwork and stonework had already reached a fairly advaced stage. The pagodas in ancient Korea were closely related to the Chinese stupa, which consisted of three parts, namely, the base, the body and the spire. The fact was, soon after the stupas were introduced into Korea, the Korean stupas began to develop features of their own. Korean brick pagodas were made up of a single-storeyed square base, multi-storeyed square body with a small gate, and a steel post with several layers of lotus flower superimposed one on the other.