• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.35 no.1
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• pp.91-98
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• 2019

The fragments of a wall painting excavated from among the historical remains of Jeseoksa Temple in Iksan. The extent of the damage to the fragments was examined and an analysis of the components of the pigment was conducted. The results of the component analysis of the pigment confirmed that the white pigment consisted of alkali feldspar and mullite. Although the results of the visual inspection revealed differences in color in the red and black pigments, the main component of the two colors was confirmed to be iron oxide. Red and black pigments are found at the same position. Although differences of color is obvious, those are identified as hematite and magnetite of oxidized steel's affiliation. It is judged that Differences of ingredients happened by external environment's factors.

• Korean Journal of Soil Science and Fertilizer
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• v.44 no.6
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• pp.1220-1225
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• 2011

Anaerobic decomposition of organic materials in flooded rice fields produces methane ($CH_4$) gas, which escapes to the atmosphere primarily by transport through organs of the rice plants such as arenchyma etc., Although the annual amount of methane emitted from a given area is influenced by cultivation periods of rice and organic/inorganic amendments etc., soil type also affects methane emission from paddy soil during a rice cultivation. A field experiment was conducted to evaluate effects of soil type on $CH_4$ emission in two paddy soils. One is a red-yellow soil classified as a Hwadong series (fine, mixed, mesic family of Aquic Hapludalfs), and the other is a gley soil classified as a Shinheung series (fine loamy, mixed, nonacid, mesic family of Aeric Fluvaquentic Endoaquepts). During a flooded periods, redox potentials of red-yellow soil were significantly higher than gley soil. $CH_4$ emission in red-yellow soil ($0.21kg\;ha^{-1}\;day^{-1}$) was lower than that in gley soil ($5.25kg\;ha^{-1}\;day^{-1}$). In the condition of different soil types, $CH_4$ emissions were mainly influenced by the content of total free metal oxides in paddy soil. The results strongly imply that iron- or manganese-oxides of well ordered crystalline forms in soil such as goethite and hematite influenced on a $CH_4$ emission, which is crucial role as a $CH_4$ oxidizers in paddy soil during a rice cultivation.

• 보존과학연구
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• s.22
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• pp.93-114
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• 2001

The composition analysis of Danchung pigments at Geunjeongjeon Hall in Gyeongbokgung Palace were carried out by FXRF and MXRD. The analytical result of the inside pigments at Geunjeongjeon showed that these painted in use the mineral pigments. Gold pigment was pure gold(Au).The main composition identified in green pigments were chalcanthite($CuSO_4$.$5H_2O$) and celadonite($K(Mg, Fe, Al)_2$.$(Si, Al)_4O_10(OH)_2$ ). Red pigments werecinnnabar(HgS).The analytical result of the outside pigments at Geunjeongjeon revealed that these applied to the artificial synthetic pigment. Yellow pigment was chromeyellow($PbCrO_4$). The main composition identified in red pigments were red lead($Pb_3O_4$)and hematite($Fe_2O_3$). Green pigments were emeral green($C_2H_3A_s3Cu_2O_8$) and chromegreen($Cr_2O_3$). Blue pigment was lazurite($Na_6Ca2Al_6Si_6O_24(SO_4)_2$), titanium dioxide($TiO_2$) of white pigment.

• 한국문화재보존과학회:학술대회논문집
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• 2002.02a
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• pp.12-20
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• 2002

The analysis of danchung pigments at the Geunjeongjeon Hall in the Gyeongbokgung Palace were carried out by EXRF and MXRD. The analytical results showed that mineral pigments were employed for the inside of the Geunjeongjeon Hall. The main ingredients of green pigments were chalcanthite and celadonite. Red pigment was cinnnabar. It was also revealed that synthetic pigments were applied for the outside of the Hall. Yellow pigment was chrome yellow. The main ingredients of red pigments were red lead and hematite. Green pigments were emeral green and chrome green. Lazurite was employed for blue pigment and titanium dioxide for white one.

• Korean Journal of Soil Science and Fertilizer
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• v.43 no.6
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• pp.837-843
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• 2010

This research investigated classification of clay activity degree by different clay mineral components. Based on compositions of different clay and oxide minerals within 390 soil series in Korea, 7 soils were selected to analyze for CEC and specific surface area of clay minerals. As a result, soils were mainly composed with Chlorite originated from sandstone, Smectite originated from Andesite porphyry and combination of Allophane and Ferrihydrite originated from volcanic ash, if the ratio of CEC value to clay content (degree of clay activity) was greater than 0.7. If the degree of clay activity was ranged between 0.3 and 0.7, soils were composed mainly with Kaolin originated from anorthite. Soils with this ratio also was composted with combinations of Kaolin, Illite and Vermiculite originated with river deposits. When the degree of the activity was less than 0.3, soils were commonly red-yellowish color and composed with two different minerals. One type of composition was Kaolin originated from granite and granite gneiss and the soils contained Geothite and Hematite. The other type was composited mainly with Illite and Vermiculite minerals originated from granite. These soils contained Gibbsite, Geothite and Hematite. The degree of clay activity was highly related with CEC and specific surface area. The greater degree of the activity displayed greater values of clay CEC and specific surface area. It is not easy to measure actual quantity and compositions of clay minerals, while the degree of clay activity can be measured from routine soil analyses. As a conclusion, the degree of clay activity may be not just a simple but also powerful tool to estimate physical-chemical properties of soils and to evaluate the soil classification in Korean soils.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.53 no.4
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• pp.170-187
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• 2020

Dolmens bearing the burial layout and stone coffin tombs of the late Bronze Age were excavated from Samdeok-ri, Goseong, Gyeonsangnsamdo, and grave items such as red-burnished pottery, arrowheads, and stone swords were also discovered. In the case of the red-burnished pottery that was found, it retains a pigment layer with a thickness of about 50 to 160㎛, but with most of the other items, exfoliation and peeling-off of pigment layers can be observed on the surface. The raw materials of the red-burnished pottery contained moderately sorted minerals such as quartz, feldspar, and hornblende, and partly opaque iron oxide minerals were also identified. In particular, the raw materials of the red-burnished pottery from stone coffin tomb #6 were different from those of the other pottery, containing large amounts of hornblende and feldspar. The pottery's red pigment was identified as hematite and showed similar mineral content of raw materials such as fine grained quartz, feldspar, and hornblende. The firing temperature is estimated to have been approximately 900℃, based on their mineral phase. The possibility exists that the raw materials had been collected from the Samdeok-ri area, because diorite and granite diorite with dominant feldspar and hornblende have been identified within 3km of that area. During the pottery manufacturing process, it is estimated that the pigment was painted on the entire surface of the red-burnished pottery after it had been molded and then finished using the abrasion technique. In other words, the red-burnished pottery was made by the process of vessel forming - semi drying - coloring - polishing. The surface and cross-section of the pottery appears differently depending on the concentration of the pigment and the coloring method used after vessels were formed. Most of the excavated pottery features a distinct boundary between pigment and body fabric. However, in the case of pottery in which fine-grained pigments penetrate the body fabric so that layers cannot be distinguished, there is the possibility that the fine-grained pigment layer was applied at a low concentration or immediately after vessel forming. Many cracks can be seen on the surface pigments in thickly painted pottery items, and in many cases, only a small portion of the pigment layers remain due to surface exfoliation and abrasion in the burial environment. It is reported that pottery items may be more easily damaged by abrasion if coated with pigment and polished, so it is believed that the red-burnished pottery of the Samdeok-ri site suffered from weathering in the burial environment. This damage was more extensive in the potsherds that were scattered outside the tomb.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.33 no.6
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• pp.485-495
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• 2017

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the functionality and lightfastness of the natural pigments according to the type of Seokganju used as Dancheong. The commercially available red iron-oxide-based natural pigments that are called Seokganju and Daija manufactured by traditional methods in Korea and Japan were selected. The analysis of the constituent minerals and constituents of 8 kinds of collected Seokganju showed that most of them contained hematite. There are two types of Seokganju according to the $Fe_2O_3$ contents. The type of Seokganju can be characterized not only using the main component but also from the burn-out processing. The chromaticity results for Seokganju with a high $Fe_2O_3$ concentration indicate dark red or grayish brown, while those for Seokganju with a low $Fe_2O_3$ concentration indicate yellowish red or yellowish brown. Samples were prepared by mixing with a glue solution and functional properties were evaluated based on the opacity and spreadability. Coated samples were used in the lightfastness test. The spreadability and opacity of the pigments were measured differently depending on the main component. Most Seokganju samples a showed slight color change until $9,000kJ/m^2$ but rapid color changes were detected after $18,000kJ/m^2$. In particular, burnt Seokganju showed superior lightfastness.

• Journal of the Mineralogical Society of Korea
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• v.22 no.2
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• pp.153-162
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• 2009

The main compositions of "Seokganju", a Korean traditional red mineral pigment, are iron oxides. To investigate its mineralogical and functional properties, we had got its ore from Juto cave in Ulreoung island, which was a famous field of it in Korean documents. The ore occurs as a paleosol between the olivine basalt and amphibole trachyte in discontinuously. It is reddish brown and yellowish brown and consists mainly of clay minerals with minor debris. Its reddish and yellowish brown color are due to the hematite and ferrihydrate, respectively. These iron oxides are precipitated as ferrihydrate from the ferrous water in the paleosol and partly changed to hematite. The color reproduced in timber by using seokganju pigment with traditional tools and methods is similar to that in heritage building. The moistureproofing and fire resistance of Ulreungdo seokganju is far better than that of artificial seokganju. Moreover, the combustion tests show that the artificial seokganju promote the ignition and combustion of the timber. Ulreungdo seokganju is regarded as a pigment with fungicidal efficacy because growth of two wood decay fungi (cov. and typ.) are inhibited in solid medium with it.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.38
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• pp.359-385
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• 2005

Red ocher, red lead or cinnabar has been as red colorant for ages. Cinnabar of the red pigments has been highly regarded as a valuable ingredient because it represent a symbol of exorcising and a haute image. It was used as a pigment of painting and mural painting, bowl, clothes, rock writing, gravestone, etc. It is powder which dissolves in perilla oil or glue before using. Because it is high-priced, the use of cinnabar may be limited to the privileged class. Therefore, red ocher or red lead was used instead of cinnabar. "Gongsagyunmunrok" demonstrated that government official's gravestonea has been painted red by two colorants in the period of the Goryeo dynasty. However, cinnabar may be used to paint gravestones for the first time in the period of the Three States because it has been transmitted since the times. This study discuss the results obtained from an analysis of the pigments used on the red pigments of the Stone Monuments. The results can be briefly summarized as below; First, the microcrystalline structures seen on the surface section of analyzed pigments, samples of which were taken from various parts of red pigments show that different sizes and shapes of pigment particle. Second, a result of the analysis on the composition and structure of the pigments shows that the main components in their composition are : Red pigments - Red lead($Pb_3O_4$), Cinnabar(HgS) and Hematite($Fe_2O_3$) White pigments - Calcite($CaCO_3$) Especially, we knew that red Stone Monuments were found to be natural mineral pigments, which were used as a singular or a mixture.

• Korean Journal of Remote Sensing
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• v.35 no.4
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• pp.535-544
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• 2019

This study demonstrated the ability of a Landsat-8 OLI multispectral data to identify and delineate hydrothermal alteration zones around auriferous prospects within the crystalline basement, North-western Nigeria. Remote sensing techniques have been widely used in lithological, structural discrimination and alteration rock delineation, and in general geological studies. Several artisanal mining activities for gold deposit occur in the surrounding areas within the basement complex and the search for new possible mineralized zones have heightened in recent times. Systematic Landsat-8 OLI data processing methods such as colour composite, band ratio and minimum noise fraction were used in this study. Colour composite of band 4, 3 and 2 was displayed in Red-Green-Blue colour image to distinguish lithologies. Band ratio ${\frac{4}{2}}$ image displayed in red was used to highlight ferric-ion bearing minerals(hematite, goethite, jarosite) associated with hydrothermal alteration, band ratio ${\frac{5}{6}}$ image displayed in green was used to highlight ferrous-ion bearing minerals such as olivine, amphibole and pyroxenes, while ratio ${\frac{6}{7}}$ image displayed in blue was used to highlight clay minerals, micas, talc-carbonates, etc. Band rationing helped to reduce the topographic illumination effect within images. The result of this study showed the distribution of the lithological units and the hydrothermal alteration zone which can be further prospected for mineral reserves.