• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.13 no.3
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• pp.334-347
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• 2000

The present experiment was carried out to study the utilization of glucose in the mammary gland of crossbred Holstein cattle during feeding with different types of roughage. Sixteen first lactating crossbred Holstein cattle which comprised eight animals of two breed types, Holstein Friesian${\times}$Red Sindhi ($50{\times}50=50%$ HF) and Holstein Friesian${\times}$Red Sindhi ($87.5{\times}12.5=87.5%$ HF). They were divided into four groups of 4 animals each of the same breed. The utilization of glucose in the mammary gland was determined by measuring rates of glucose uptake and the incorporation of glucose into milk components in both groups of 50% HF and 87.5% HF animals feeding on either hay or urea treated rice straw. In early lactation, there were no significant differences of the total glucose entry rate and glucose carbon recycling among groups of crossbred animals feeding on either hay or urea treated rice straw. During lactation advance, the total glucose turnover rates and recycling of carbon glucose of crossbred HF animals feeding on urea treated rice straw were markedly higher than those of crossbred HF animals feeding on hay as roughage, whereas there were no significant changes for both groups of crossbred animals feeding on hay. The percentages and values of non-mammary glucose utilization showed an increase during lactation advance in the same group of both 50% HF and 87.5% HF animals. The percentage of glucose uptake for utilization in the synthesis of milk lactose by the mammary gland was approximately 62% for both groups of 87.5% HF and by approximately 55% for both groups of 50% HF animals feeding on either hay or urea treated rice straw. Intracellular glucose 6-phosphate metabolized via the pentose phosphate pathway accounted for the NADPH (reducing equivalent) of fatty acid synthesis in the mammary gland being higher in 87.5% HF animals during mid-lactation. A large proportion of metabolism of glucose via the Embden-Meyerhof pathway in the mammary gland was more apparent in both groups of 50% HF animals than those of 87.5 % HF animals during early and mid-lactation while it markedly increased for both groups of 87.5% HF animals during late lactation. It can be concluded that utilization of glucose in the mammary gland occurs in a different manner for 50% HF and 87.5% HF animals feeding on either hay or urea treated rice straw. The glucose utilization for biosynthetic pathways in the mammary gland of 50% HF animals is maintained in a similar pattern throughout the periods of lactation. A poorer lactation persistency in both groups of 87.5% HF animals occurs during lactation advance, which is related to a decrease in the lactose biosynthetic pathway.

• Journal of Veterinary Clinics
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• v.33 no.1
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• pp.74-79
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• 2016

A 7-year-old female Pointer dog with multiple masses in the axilla, mammary gland, and bladder was submitted to the Pathology Department of the College of Veterinary Medicine in the Jeju National University. Grossly, mass between right axilla and 1st mammary gland, $15{\times}10cm$ in size, was well delineated and firm, slightly soft center, oval shape. And masses in right 1st, 3rd and 5th mammary gland were well delineated and sulphur yellow in color on the cut-surface. Numerous round to oval shaped masses, 0.3 to 2 cm in diameter were existed in the lung. Urinary bladder mucosa had rough and thick and round to oval papillary masses, 0.1 to 2 cm in diameter, on surface. Microscopically, masses in right axilla, 1st mammary gland, lung and axillary lymph node were composed of poorly differentiated tubules originated from apocrine gland. Lining neoplastic epithelium showed high mitotic figures, typical apical secretory blebs, and PAS-positive diastase-resistant cytoplasmic granules. Masses in 3rd and 5th mammary gland were confirmed as mammary complex adenoma and simple adenoma respectively. The masses in the urinary bladder were covered with stratified transitional epithelium with marked cellular atypia and high mitotic figures. Some neoplastic cells showed focal invasion into substantia propria of bladder. Immunohistochemaically, neoplastic transitional epithelium demonstrated positive reactions for cytokeratin 7, AE1/AE3, and MNF116. Based on the gross, histopathologic and immunohistochemical characteristics, this dog was diagnosed as apocrine carcinoma, mammary gland tumor including simple adenoma and complex adenoma and bladder transitional cell carcinoma. And distant metastases of apocrine carcinoma in right axilla were observed in axillary lymph node and lungs. This is the first report for concurrent occurrence of apocrine carcinoma, mammary gland tumor, and transitional cell carcinoma in a same dog.

• Korean Journal of Animal Reproduction
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• v.25 no.4
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• pp.349-357
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• 2001

This study was conducted to examine the effect of caffeine and three dietary levels of fat, i.e., 0%, 5% and 20% on mammary gland development. Mice were assigned to three groups (dietary levels 0%, 5%, 20% fat), and treated caffeine of half within the each group. Caffeine-treated mice with 0% or 20% fat levels significantly increased 4$^{th}$ mammary gland development in comparison with that of no caffeine -treated mice (P＜0.05). Caffeine-treated mice significantly increased DNA contents of 4$^{th}$ mammary gland in comparison with that of no caffeine-treated mice (P＜0.05), and DNA contents of mammary gland increased as fat levels increased within caffeine-treated or no caffeine-treated group. nteraction effect was shown between caffeine and 20% fat diet, ［(20% fat+caffeine) - (20% fat + no caffeine) vs (0% fat + caffeine) - (0% fat + no caffeine)］(P＜0.01). Conclusively, caffeine significantly increased mouse mammary gland development possibly by inhibiting phosphodiesterase activity, and dietary fat supplements increased mammary gland development as the fat content of the diet increased from 0 to 20%. The stimulatory effect of caffeine in mammary development interacted with high level of fat diet.

• Journal of Veterinary Clinics
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• v.30 no.6
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• pp.486-489
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• 2013

An 18-year-old, neutered female, Yorkshire terrier was presented with abdominal mass. Large abdominal mass was located in right 4th and 5th mammary glands. Surgically excised mammary mass was submitted for histological evaluation. Microscopically, multifocal to confluent neoplastic foci were existed from superficial dermis to subcutis. Several different growth patterns such as comedo, solid, cribriform, and micropapillary were present in the neoplastic foci. Large neoplastic mammary ducts showed great invasive tendency to adjacent tissues. Many superficial lymphatic plexuses and dermal lymphatics contained numerous neoplastic cell emboli. Because comedo pattern was demonstrated by more than 50% of the neoplastic cell population, we confirmed this case as mammary comedocarcinoma according to recent classification of canine mammary tumors.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.14 no.5
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• pp.710-719
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• 2001

Several amino acid transport systems in mammary gland have been characterized during the last few years. These systems may be divided into two broad categories based on whether they are sodium-dependent or $Na^{+}$-independent, and each of these categories is subdivided into 3 groups depending on whether the systems prefer zwitterionic, cationic or anionic substrates. The zwitterion preferring transport processes in mammary gland are $Na^{+}$-dependent system A and $Na^{+}$-independent systems L and T. System $y^{+}$ is a $Na^{+}$-independent transporter of cationic amino acids and $X_{AG^{-}}$ is a $Na^{+}$-dependent system for anionic amino acids. A ($Na^{+}+Cl^{-}$)-dependent system, selective for $\beta$-amino acids has been reported in rat mammary tissue. In addition, there is yet another class of transporters that have still broader specificity. The $Na^{+}$-dependent systems $BCl^{-}$-dependent and $BCl^{-}$-independent and $Na^{+}$-independent system $y^{+}L$ have been reported to mediate the transport of zwitterionic as well as cationic amino acids. Each system has been characterized with respect to its substrate specificity, affinity, kinetics and ion-dependence. Transport of amino acids by mammary tissue is regulated by i) the intracellular substrate concentration, ii) lactogenic hormones and iii) milk stasis. Four of the above transport systems (i.e. A, L, $y^{+}$ and $BCl^{-}$-independent) are up-regulated by lactogenic hormones (insulin, cortisol and prolactin) in mammary gland.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.16 no.7
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• pp.988-995
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• 2003

Physiological parameters were measured on six primiparous, non-pregnant Holstein cows prior to peak lactation over a 3-month summer season in southwestern Taiwan. The objectives were to characterize heat stress-induced change in functionality of mammary gland under natural climates of tropical summer and to establish physiological indices applicable to this environment in referring to this change. Environmental and physiological readings, milk and blood samples were taken at 15:00 h biweekly for totally five time points during the study. Climate readings showed that the afternoon humidex value reached the highest (53.5) around mid summer. Rectal temperature of cows taken simultaneously varied between $38.26^{\circ}C$ and $40.02^{\circ}C$ in parallel to humidex. Milk production declined drastically from 29.2 to 22.2 kg/d the first month entering summer but leveled up at end of the summer season suggesting effects exerted by heat stress rather than stages of lactation. Lactose content decreased linearly (p<0.05) with times in summer, from 4.69 to 4.38%. On the other hand, activity of N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAGase) in milk increased linearly to over two folds (p<0.05) during the same intervals. Elevations of fractional constituent of BSA in whey protein and serum cortisol level were also noticed in the course. Measurement of arteriovenous concentration (A-V) difference across the mammary gland demonstrated net uptake of glucose and net release of urea throughout the study period. The amount of urea released from mammary gland increased (p<0.05) progressively from 1.54 to 7.76 mg/dl during summer. It is concluded that gradual regression of mammary gland occurred along the humid tropical summer season. This regression is likely initiated through elevation of body temperature, which is irreversible above certain point. The increased release of urea from mammary gland during heat stress suggests its potential role as an early indicator of suboptimal mammary function.

• Archives of Plastic Surgery
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• v.39 no.3
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• pp.216-221
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• 2012

Background : Nipple-sparing mastectomy (NSM) is gaining popularity due to its superior aesthetic results. When reconstructing the breast with free abdominal tissue transfer, we must readdress the recipient vessel, because NSM can cause difficulty in access to the chest vessel. Methods : Between June 2006 and March 2011, a total of 92 women underwent NSM with free abdominal tissue transfer. A lateral oblique incision was used for the nipple-sparing mastectomy. For recipient vessels, the internal mammary vessels were chosen if the mastectomy flap did not block access to the vessels. If it did, the thoracodorsal vessels were used. Age, degree of breast ptosis, weight of the mastectomy specimen, and related complications of the internal mammary vessel group and the thoracodorsal vessel group were compared. Results : Thoracodorsal vessels were used as recipient vessels in 59 cases, and internal mammary vessels in 33 cases including 4 cases with perforators of the internal mammary vessels. Breast reconstruction was successful in all cases except one case involving a total flap failure, which was replaced by a silicone gel implant. The internal mammary group and the thoracodorsal group were similar in terms of age, height, breast weight, and degree of ptosis. The flap related complications such as flap loss and take-back operation rates were not significantly different between the two groups. The rate of nipple necrosis was higher in the internal mammary group. Conclusions : The thoracodorsal vessels could produce comparable outcomes in breast reconstruction after nipple-sparing mastectomies. If access to internal mammary vessels is difficult, the thoracodorsal vessel can be a better choice.

• Archives of Pharmacal Research
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• v.28 no.3
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• pp.351-357
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• 2005

Endosulfan is one of the organochlorine pesticides, which are well-known endocrine disruptors (EDs), and it acts as an estrogen agonist. Estrogen is a group of hormones that play an important role in mammary gland function and are implicated in mammary carcinogenesis. In the present study, we studied the effects of endosulfan on nodule like alveolar lesion (NLAL) formation in mouse mammary gland development using a mouse mammary gland organ culture (MMOC) system. Although endosulfan-treated mammary glands did not form NLALs, more alveolar buds were formed in this group than in the negative control (vehicle-treated) group. In addition, telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) mRNA expression levels were increased in endosulfan-treated mammary glands in a dose-dependent manner. Telomerase can be activated by estrogen, therefore, we examined the effects of endosulfan on telomerase activity, and found that the telomerase activity in estrogen receptor-positive MCF-7 cells was up-regulated by endosulfan treatment. Moreover, this activation was accompanied by the up­regulation of the TERT mRNA expression. Also, transient expression assays using CAT reporter plasm ids containing various fragments of the TERT promoter showed that this imperfect palindromic estrogen-responsive element is almost certainly responsible for the transcriptional activation by endosulfan. These results may help elucidate the endocrine disrupting mechanism of endosulfan.

• Animal Bioscience
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• v.35 no.6
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• pp.814-825
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• 2022

Objective: This study was conducted to identify the functional long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) for swine lactation by RNA-seq data of mammary gland. Methods: According to the RNA-seq data of swine mammary gland, we screened lncRNAs, performed differential expression analysis, and confirmed the functional lncRNAs for swine lactation by validation of genome wide association study (GWAS) signals, functional annotation and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). Results: We totally identified 286 differentially expressed (DE) lncRNAs in mammary gland at different stages from 14 days prior to (-) parturition to day 1 after (+) parturition, and the expressions of most of lncRNAs were strongly changed from day -2 to day +1. Further, the GWAS signals of sow milk ability trait were significantly enriched in DE lncRNAs. Functional annotation revealed that these DE lncRNAs were mainly involved in mammary gland and lactation developing, milk composition metabolism and colostrum function. By performing weighted WGCNA, we identified 7 out of 12 lncRNA-mRNA modules that were highly associated with the mammary gland at day -14, day -2, and day +1, in which, 35 lncRNAs and 319 mRNAs were involved. Conclusion: This study suggested that 18 lncRNAs and their 20 target genes were promising candidates for swine parturition and colostrum occurrence processes. Our research provided new insights into lncRNA profiles and their regulating mechanisms from colostrogenesis to lactogenesis in swine.

• Journal of Animal Science and Technology
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• v.46 no.4
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• pp.585-592
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• 2004

Our previous studies demonstrated that relaxin in concert with estrogen promotes development of the mammary parenchyma during the last third of gestation in gilts, and the specific relaxin-binding sites were present in the mammary gland. This study was conducted to determine if relaxin-binding sites in the mammary gland were functional relaxin receptors. Three cycling cross-bred gilts were bilaterally ovariectomized on day 0 of the experiment. Beginning on day 15 and continuing through day 29 post-surgery, the gilt received an im. injection of estradiol benzoate at 12-hr intervals. Beginning on day 22 post-surgery, highly purified porcine relaxin was administered(lug/hr) into the left fourth mammary gland from the anterior end via miniature osmotic pump. Physiological saline was administered to the right fourth mammary gland. The gilt was sacrificed on day 29 post-surgery and histological characteristics of the mammary parenchyma were examined. The mammary glands treated locally with saline showed little, if any, lobulo-alveolar development, whereas the mammary glands treated with relaxin showed not only marked lobulo-alveolar development but also prominent secretions in the alveoli. The saline-treated glands were characterized by relatively dense and highly organized collagen fiber bundles. Whereas, in the relaxin-treated mammary glands, collagen fiber bundles were dispersed and loosely organized. In conclusion, relaxin-binding sites in the mammary gland are functional relaxin receptors and relaxin acts directly on the pig mammary gland to promote development of the alveoli and remodeling of the extracellular matrix.