• The Plant Pathology Journal
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• v.33 no.4
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• pp.351-361
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• 2017

Bacterial canker is the largest limiting factor in the cultivation and production of kiwifruit worldwide. Typical symptoms comprise necrotic spots on leaves, canker and dieback on canes and trunks, twig wilting, and blossom necrosis. Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa), which is the causal agent of kiwifruit bacterial canker, is divided into four biovars based on multilocus sequence analysis of different genes, additional PCR testing of pathogenic genes (argKtox cluster, cfl, and various effector genes), and biochemical and physiological characterization. Bacterial canker caused by Psa biovar 2 designated Psa2 was detected for the first time on the green-fleshed kiwifruit cultivar Hayward in 1988 and the yellow-fleshed kiwifruit cultivar Hort16A in 2006 in Korea. Psa biovar 3 designated Psa3, responsible for the current global pandemics of kiwifruit bacterial canker, began to appear in Korea in 2011 and caused tremendous economic losses by destroying many vines or orchards of yellow-fleshed kiwifruit cultivars in one or several growing seasons. Bacterial canker epidemics caused by both Psa2 and Psa3 are prevalent in Korea in recent years. In this review, we summarize the symptomatology, etiology, disease cycle, diagnosis, and epidemiology of kiwifruit bacterial canker in Korea.

• Korean Journal Plant Pathology
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• v.10 no.1
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• pp.68-72
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• 1994

Bacterial canker of kiwifruit recently outbroke throughout the southcoast of Korea, the major production areas of kiwifruit. Some orchards were destroyed because of severe damage by the epidemics of the bacterial canker, especially in Jeju-si and Bukjeju-kun, Jeju and Goheung-kun and Wando-kun, Chonnam. The bacterial canker, which has been occurred in Jeju from the mid 1980s, was first observed in Haenam-kun, Chonnam in 1991. The disease outbroken throughout the southcoast of Korea caused extremely severe damages and the diseased areas are increasing continuously. The possibility that the bacterial canker was introduced from Japan into Jeju is high, although the path of the epidemic is still not clear. And then the bacterial canker may spread from Jeju to Haenam and/or Wando, from which the disease may spread to the southcoast of Chonnam and the westcoast of Kyungnam in Korea.

• The Plant Pathology Journal
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• v.32 no.6
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• pp.537-544
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• 2016

We developed a model, termed D-PSA-K, to estimate the accumulated potential damage on kiwifruit canes caused by bacterial canker during the growing and overwintering seasons. The model consisted of three parts including estimation of the amount of necrotic lesion in a non-frozen environment, the rate of necrosis increase in a freezing environment during the overwintering season, and the amount of necrotic lesion on kiwifruit canes caused by bacterial canker during the overwintering and growing seasons. We evaluated the model's accuracy by comparing the observed maximum disease incidence on kiwifruit canes against the damage estimated using weather and disease data collected at Wando during 1994-1997 and at Seogwipo during 2014-2015. For the Hayward cultivar, D-PSA-K estimated the accumulated damage as approximately nine times the observed maximum disease incidence. For the Hort16A cultivar, the accumulated damage estimated by D-PSA-K was high when the observed disease incidence was high. D-PSA-K could assist kiwifruit growers in selecting optimal sites for kiwifruit cultivation and establishing improved production plans by predicting the loss in kiwifruit production due to bacterial canker, using past weather or future climate change data.

• The Plant Pathology Journal
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• v.35 no.5
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• pp.473-485
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• 2019

Kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.) is an economically important crop and a bacterial canker disease, caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa), is the most destructive disease in kiwifruit production. Therefore, prevent and control of the disease is a critical issue in kiwifruit industry worldwide. Unfortunately, there is no reliable control methods have been developed. Recently, interest in disease control using microbial agents is growing. However, kiwifruit microbiota and their roles in the disease control is mainly remaining unknown. In this study, we secured bacterial libraries from kiwifruit ecospheres (rhizosphere, endospere, and phyllosphere) and screened reliable biocontrol strains against Psa. As the results, Streptomyces racemochromogenes W1SF4, Streptomyces sp. W3SF9 and S. parvulus KPB2 were selected as anti-Psa agents from the libraries. The strains showed forcible antibacterial activity as well as exceptional colonization ability on rhizosphere or phyllosphere of kiwifruit. Genome analyses of the strains suggested that the strains may produce several anti-Psa secondary metabolites. Our results will contribute to develop biocontrol strains against the kiwifruit canker pathogen and the disease management strategies.

• Plant Disease and Agriculture
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• v.5 no.2
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• pp.95-99
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• 1999

Chemical control of bacterial canker of kiwifruit caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae was attempted by spraying of streptomycin sulfate ·oxytetracycline WP streptomycin WP streptomycin ·copper hydroxide WP kasugamycin SL kasugamycin·copper oxychloride WP and copper hydroxide WP. The control efficacies of the bactericides were variable depending upon the spraying schedule,. Application of streptomycin WP and streptomycin sulfate·oxytetracycline WP from middle April to early May was found to be the most effective in controlling the bacterial canker. For copper hydroxide WP the spraying from middle January to early February showed the highest control efficacy. Kasugamycin SL was the most effective in controlling the disease by spraying from middle April to early May but it was still relatibvely effective during other spray periods. Foliar application of copper hydroxide WP and copper-antibiotic formulaions after middle April caused severe phytotoxicity. Kasgamycil SL streptomycin WP streptomycin·copper hydroxide WP and copper hydroxide WP were potential bactericides which could substitute streptomycin sulfate·oxytetracycline WP. Selective applications of the bactericides according to their optimum spray time can enhance the control efficacies against bacterial canker of kiwifruit and retard the emergency of resistant strains of P. syringae pv. actinidiae to the bactericides. The optimum spray number of streptomycin sulfate·oxytetracycline WP was 3 times with 15-day-intervals or 4 times with 10-day-intervals. The result suggested that the potential bactericides to bacterial canker of kiwifruit should be also used according to their optimum spray schedules in order to get their highest control efficacies.

• Research in Plant Disease
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• v.23 no.1
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• pp.1-18
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• 2017

Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae, the causal agent of bacterial canker, is currently causing severe economic losses to kiwifruit production worldwide. The pathogen has affected green-fleshed kiwifruit cutlivars and yellow-fleshed kiwifruit cultivars since 1988 and 2006 in Korea, respectively. In recent years, the biovar 3 strains of P. syringae pv. actinidiae were introduced through imported contaminated pollens and have rapidly spread to neighboring kiwiruit orchards by secondary infection, leading to outbreaks of bacterial canker and tremendous damages on yellow- and red-fleshed kiwifruit cultivars. In this review, we summarize the various management practices of bacterial canker of kiwifruit such as disease escaping, cultural practices, blocking of dissemination, early diagnosis, eradication of inoculum sources, chemical control, and trunk injection on the basis of our research works and field experiences and important research products conducted during the last three decades in the world. Finally, we propose a manual for the efficient management of the disease that can be practically utilized at the farmers' orchards in order to keep kiwifruit vines healthy in the future.

• The Plant Pathology Journal
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• v.32 no.6
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• pp.545-551
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• 2016

A bacterial pathogen, Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa), is a causal agent of kiwifruit bacterial canker worldwide. Psa biovar 3 (Psa3) was first detected in 2011 at an orchard in Dodeok-myeon, Goheung-gun, Jeonnam Province in Korea. In this study, we present the results of an epidemiological study regarding Psa3 occurrence on kiwifruit orchards in Korea for the period of 2013 to 2015. Since the first detection of Psa3 in 2011, there was no further case reported by 2013. However, Psa3 was rapidly spreading to 33 orchards in 2014; except for three orchards in Sacheon-si, Gyeongnam Province, most cases were reported in Jeju Island. Entering 2015, bacterial canker by Psa3 became a pandemic in Korea, spreading to 72 orchards in Jeju Island, Jeonnam, and Gyeongnam Provinces. Our epidemiological study indicated that the first Psa3 incidence in 2011 might result from an introduction of Psa3 through imported seedlings from China in 2006. Apart from this, it was estimated that most Psa3 outbreaks from 2014 to 2015 were caused by pollens imported from New Zealand and China for artificial pollination. Most kiwifruit cultivars growing in Korea were infected with Psa3; yellow-fleshed cultivars (Yellow-king, Hort16A, Enza-gold, Zecy-gold, and Haegeum), red-fleshed cultivars (Hongyang and Enza-Red), green-fleshed cultivars (Hayward and Daeheung), and even a kiwiberry (Skinny-green). However, susceptibility to canker differed among cultivars; yellow- and red-fleshed cultivars showed much more severe symptoms compared to the green-fleshed cultivars of kiwifruit and a kiwiberry.

• Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology
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• v.28 no.9
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• pp.1542-1546
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• 2018

Bacterial canker in kiwifruit is caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa). In this study, the bacteriophage PPPL-1 effective against Psa was characterized. Belonging to the Podoviridae family, PPPL-1 was effective against most Psa strains as well as most Pseudomonas syringae pathovars. PPPL-1 carries a 41,149-bp genome with 49 protein coding sequences and is homologous to the previously reported phiPSA2 bacteriophage. The lytic activity of PPPL-1 was stable up to $40^{\circ}C$, within a range of pH 3-11 and under 365 nm UV light. These results indicate that the bacteriophage PPPL-1 might be useful to control Psa in the kiwifruit field.

• The Plant Pathology Journal
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• v.37 no.5
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• pp.489-493
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• 2021

Bacterial canker is a devastating disease of kiwifruit caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas syringe pv. actinidiae. Canker disease of kiwifruit in Korea has been controlled using streptomycin for more than two decades. Four streptomycin-resistant strains, belonging to biovar 2, which are found only in Korea, were collected between 2013 and 2014 from different orchards located in Jeju, Korea. The genetic background for streptomycin resistance among P. syringe pv. actinidiae strains were determined by examining the presence of strA-strB or aadA, which are genes frequently found in streptomycin-resistant bacteria, and a point mutation at codon 43 in the rpsL gene. All four streptomycin-resistant strains of P. syringe pv. actinidiae investigated in this study contained strA-strB as a resistant determinant. The presence of the aadA gene and a mutation in codon 43 of the rpsL gene was not identified.

• Research in Plant Disease
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• v.26 no.1
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• pp.44-47
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• 2020

Streptomycin resistant isolates of Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae, the causal agent of bacterial canker in kiwifruit, were found in Korea. A total of 734 isolates of P. syringae pv. actinidiae collected between 2008 and 2017 from bacterial canker infections in 111 kiwifruit orchards were assessed for streptomycin resistance. The survival of each isolate was screened against 100 ㎍/ml of streptomycin. Among 734 isolates, 38 streptomycin resistant P. syringae pv. actinidiae isolates originated from nine orchards were found. Streptomycin resistant isolates belonging to biovar 2 were found in several individual years, but ones belonging to biovar 3 were found in Korea only since 2016. Therefore, to use streptomycin for control of bacterial canker in kiwifruit orchards should be very careful, and it is necessary to check the streptomycin susceptibility of the pathogen before use in kiwifruit orchards.