• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.41 no.3
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• pp.379-385
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• 2017

In this study, white ginseng was used as the raw material, which was fermented with Paecilomyces hepiali through solid culture medium, to produce ginsenosides with modified chemical composition. The characteristic chemical markers of the products thus produced were investigated using rapid resolution liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (RRLC-QTOF-MS). Chemical profiling data were obtained, which were then subjected to multivariate statistical analysis for the systematic comparison of active ingredients in white ginseng and fermented ginseng to understand the beneficial properties of ginsenoside metabolites. In addition, the effects of these components on biological activity were investigated to understand the improvements in the phagocytic function of macrophages in zebrafish. According to the established RRLC-QTOF-MS chemical profiling, the contents in ginsenosides of high molecular weight, especially malonylated protopanaxadiol ginsenosides, were slightly reduced due to the fermentation, which were hydrolyzed into rare and minor ginsenosides. Moreover, the facilitation of macrophage phagocytic function in zebrafish following treatment with different ginseng extracts confirmed that the fermented ginseng is superior to white ginseng. Our results prove that there is a profound change in chemical constituents of ginsenosides during the fermentation process, which has a significant effect on the biological activity of these compounds.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.44 no.2
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• pp.205-214
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• 2020

Background: This article aims to compare and analyze the contents of ginsenosides in ginseng of different plant ages from different localities in China. Methods: In this study, 77 fresh ginseng samples aged 2-4 years were collected from 13 different cultivation regions in China. The content of eight ginsenosides (Rg₃, Rc, Rg₁, Rf, Rb₂, Rb₁, Re, and Rd) was determined using rapid resolution liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole-time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (RRLC-Q-TOF MS/MS) to comparatively evaluate the influences of cultivation region and age. Results: Ginsenoside contents differed significantly depending on age and cultivation region. The contents of ginsenosides Re, Rc, Rg₁, Rg₃, and Rf increased with cultivation age, whereas that of ginsenoside Rb₁ peaked in the third year of cultivation. Moreover, the highest ginsenoside content was obtained from Changbai (19.36 mg/g) whereas the lowest content was obtained from Jidong (12.05 mg/g). Ginseng from Jilin Province contained greater total ginsenosides and was richer in ginsenoside Re than ginseng of the same age group in Heilongjiang and Liaoning provinces, where Rb₁ and Rg₁ contents were relatively high. Conclusion: In this study, RRLC-Q-TOF MS/MS was used to analyze ginsenoside contents in 77 ginseng samples aged 2-4 years from different cultivation regions. These patterns of variation in ginsenoside content, which depend on harvesting location and age, could be useful for interested parties to choose ginseng products according to their needs.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.37 no.1
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• pp.124-134
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• 2013

The authentication of the physico-chemical properties of ginsenosides reference materials as well as qualitative and quantitative batch analytical data based on validated analytical procedures is a prerequisite for certifying good manufacturing practice (GMP). Ginsenoside Rb1 and Rg1, representing protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol ginsenosides, respectively, are accepted as marker substances in quality control standards worldwide. However, the current analytical methods for these two compounds recommended by Korean, Chinese, European, and Japanese pharmacopoeia do not apply to red ginseng preparations, particularly the extract, because of the relatively low content of the two agents in red ginseng compared to white ginseng. In manufacturing fresh ginseng into red ginseng products, ginseng roots are exposed to a high temperature for many hours, and the naturally occurring ginsenoside Rb1 and Rg1 are converted to artifact ginsenosides such as Rg3, Rg5, Rh1, and Rh2 during the heating process. The analysis of ginsenosides in commercially available ginseng products in Korea led us to propose the inclusion of the (20S)- and (20R)-ginsenoside Rg3, including ginsenoside Rb1 and Rg1, as additional reference materials for ginseng preparations. (20S)- and (20R)-ginsenoside Rg3 were isolated by Diaion HP-20 adsorption chromatography, silica gel flash chromatography, recrystallization, and preparative HPLC. HPLC fractions corresponding to those two ginsenosides were recrystallized in appropriate solvents for the analysis of physico-chemical properties. Documentation of those isolated ginsenosides was achieved according to the method proposed by Gaedcke and Steinhoff. The ginsenosides were subjected to analyses of their general characteristics, identification, purity, content quantification, and mass balance tests. The isolated ginsenosides showed 100% purity when determined by the three HPLC systems. Also, the water content was found to be 0.534% for (20S)-Rg3 and 0.920% for (20R)-Rg3, meaning that the net mass balances for (20S)-Rg3 and (20R)-Rg3 were 99.466% and 99.080%, respectively. From these results, we could assess and propose a full spectrum of physico-chemical properties of (20S)- and (20R)-ginsenoside Rg3 as standard reference materials for GMP-based quality control.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.26 no.3
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• pp.111-131
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• 2002

Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) received a great deal of attention from the Orient and West as a tonic agent, health food and/or alternative herbal therapeutic agent. However, controversy with respect to scientific evidence on pharmacological effects especially, evaluation of clinical efficacy and the methodological approach still remains to be solved. Author reviewed those articles published since 1980 when pharmacodynamic studies on ginseng have intensively started. Special concern was paid on metabolic disorders including diabetes mellitus, circulatory disorders, malignant tumor, sexual dysfunction, and physical and mental performance to give clear information to those who are interested in pharmacological study of ginseng and to promote its clinical use. With respect to chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis, high blood pressure, malignant disorders, and sexual disorders, it seems that ginseng plays preventive and restorative role rather than therapeutics. Particularly, ginseng plays a significant role in ameliorating subjective symptoms and preventing quality of life from deteriorating by long term exposure of chemical therapeutic agents. Also it seems that the potency of ginseng is mild, therefore it could be more effective when used concomitantly with conventional therapy. Clinical studies on the tonic effect of ginseng on work performance demonstrated that physical and mental dysfunction induced by various stresses are improved by increasing adaptability of physical condition. However, the results obtained from clinical studies cannot be mentioned in the indication, which are variable upon the scientist who performed those studies. In this respect, standardized ginseng product and providing planning of the systematic clinical research in double-blind randomized controlled trials are needed to assess the real efficacy for proposing ginseng indication. Pharmacological mode of action of ginseng has not yet been fully elucidated. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic researches reveal that the role of ginseng not seem to be confined to a given single organ. It has been known that ginseng plays a beneficial role in such general organs as central nervous, endocrine, metabolic, immune systems, which means ginseng improves general physical and mental conditons. Such multivalent effect of ginseng can be attributed to the main active component of ginseng,ginsenosides or non-saponin compounds which are also recently suggested to be another active ingredients. As is generally the similar case with other herbal medicines, effects of ginseng cannot be attributed as a given single compound or group of components. Diversified ingredients play synergistic or antagonistic role each other and act in harmonized manner. A few cases of adverse effect in clinical uses are reported, however, it is not observed when standardized ginseng products are used and recommended dose was administered. Unfavorable interaction with other drugs has also been suggested, which the information on the products and administered dosage are not available. However, efficacy, safety, interaction or contraindication with other medicines has to be more intensively investigated in order to promote clinical application of ginseng. For example, daily recommended doses per day are not agreement as 1-2g in the West and 3-6 g in the Orient. Duration of administration also seems variable according to the purpose. Two to three months are generally recommended to feel the benefit but time- and dose-dependent effects of ginseng still need to be solved from now on. Furthermore, the effect of ginsenosides transformed by the intestinal microflora, and differential effect associated with ginsenosides content and its composition also should be clinically evaluated in the future. In conclusion, the more wide-spread use of ginseng as a herbal medicine or nutraceutical supplement warrants the more rigorous investigations to assess its effacy and safety. In addition, a careful quality control of ginseng preparations should be done to ensure an acceptable standardization of commercial products.

• Korean Journal of Plant Resources
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• v.19 no.1
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• pp.133-138
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• 2006

In order to enhance the components of bioactive ginsenosides and the manufacturing process of red ginseng, we developed the simplified method for red ginseng production. The red ginseng extract was prepared from red ginseng produced with the simplified method, and the production rate of extract ($62^{\circ}$ brix) was more than 60%. The ginsenosides of red ginseng were purified and analyzed by HPLC using ELSD. Ginsenoside-$Rg_3,\;Rh_2$ and $Rh_1$, specific artifacts found only in red ginseng, were detected by HPLC. Especially, contents of ginsenoside-$Rg_3$ and Rh1 were detected high than two times in red ginseng produced the simplified method compared to commercial products.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.29 no.3
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• pp.126-130
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• 2005

Ginseng saponins have been known as main active principles and are quantified as the index components of ginseng and its products for quality control. However ginseng saponins are easily hydrolyzed in acidic solutions of crude drug preparations. Due to the hydrolysis of saponins in acidic condition, it is generally difficult to determine ginseng saponins In crude drug preparations. Ginseng saponins, prosapogenins and sapogenins of crude drug extracts were quantified by HPLC. Ginseng saponins were quantified by HPLC on $Lichrosorb-NH_2$ column with acetonitrile/water/1-butanol(80:20:10, v/v). Ginseng $prosapogenin-Rg_2$ and $-Rg_2$ were extracted with ethyl acetate from $50\%$ acetic acid hydrolyzates of saponin fractions and quantified by HPLC on $Lichrosorb-NH_2$ column with acetonitrile/water(90:10, v/v). Ginseng sapogenins, panafadiol and panaxatriol, were extracted with diethyl ether from $7\%-sulfuric$ acid hydrolyzates of saponin fractions and quantified by HPLC on ${\mu}-Bondapak\;C_{18}$ column with acetonitrile/methano1/chloroform(83:10:7, v/v). These methods of analyses of sapogenins and prosapogenins were more useful for quality control than those of ginseng saponins in some of crude drug preparations.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.11 no.2
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• pp.136-144
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• 1987

Biosynthesis of saponins from acetate, mevalonate and squalene using root slices of panax ginseng C.A. Meyer was investigated. The sliced roots (2g) were incubated with the reaction mixture containing 20 M sodium acetate ($500\mu$Ci [U-$^{l4}C$]-acetate),10 mM mevalonate ($25\mu$Ci [2-$^{l4}C$]-mevalonate) or 10 mM swidme ($10\mu$Ci [4,8,12,13,17,21-$^3H$]-squalene) respectively at $30^{\circ}C$ for 72 hours. Biosynthesis of labelled ginseng saponine from [U-l4C]-acetate, [2-$^{l4}C$]-mevalonate and [4,8,12,13,17,21-$^3H$]-squalene was confirmed by autoradiography. Analysis of the products from [U-$^{l4}C$]-acetate by T.L.C. showed that the % radioactivities in panaxadiol, panaxatriol, squalene and mevalonate were found to be 2.1%, 2.7%, 2.6% and 0.2% respectively. Some of the sugars were also highly labelled. Analysis of the products from [2-$^{l4}C$]-mevalonate by T.L.C. showed that squalene was highly labelled and the products from [4,8,12,13,17,21-$^3H$]-squalene showed that panaxadiol, panaxatriol and sterol were highly labelled. From the above results, it was suggested that saponine might be synthesized from acetate via mevalonate-squalene route as expected in ginseng root.

• Food Science and Preservation
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• v.6 no.1
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• pp.23-28
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• 1999

Commercial red ginseng, which was manufactured for the past 6 years, showed a microbial level of 2.0${\times}$10\ulcorner to 7.2${\times}$10\ulcorner CFU/g of total aerobic bacteria and molds. The moisture content of commercial products was ranged from 13.54 to 17.26%, which were higher than that of the product standard, 14%. Irradiation of red ginseng at 2.5 kGy resulted in the reduction of microorganisms contaminated to below the detectable level. Irradiation prevented mold growth on red ginseng during storage at RH 90% and 25$^{\circ}C$; molds were found at the 72nd day after storage in 2.5 kGy-irradiated sample, while 41st day in the nonirradiated control. At this point of time, irradiated samples showed an increased level of moisture content required for mold growth, 22.2% in 2.5 kGy group and 21.5% in control group. Based on the above results, microbiological qualities of red ginseng could be effectively improved by the optimum dose of irradiation, which was expected to secure the quality stability of red ginseng during distribution under the high-moistured conditions.

• Journal of Environmental Health Sciences
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• v.9 no.2
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• pp.37-53
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• 1983

The contents of amino acids were examined in the 3, 4, 5, and 6 year-old roots of fresh ginseng and the 1979, 1980, 1981, and 1982 years' products of white and red ginsengs. Samples extracted with 75% ethanol for free amino acids and hydrolyzed with 6N-HCL for total amino acids were analyzed by Amino Acid Analyzer (Hitachi model KLA-5). The results were summarized as follows: 1. Amino acids from extracted samples were 18 kinds of Tryptophan, Lysine, Histidine, Arginine, Aspartic acid, Threonine, Serine, Glutamic acid, Proline, Glycine, Alanine, Cystine, Valine, Methionine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Tyrosine, and Phenylalanine. 2. Amino acids detected in hydrolyzed samples were 17 kinds execpt Tryptophan of extracted ones. 3. Arginine was the highest quantity of amino acids in ginseng. 4. The content of Tryptophan was 0.5690 mg/g in the 6 year-old fresh ginseng and trace quantities in other samples. 5. The contents of amino acids were increased in fresh ginseng according to cultivation year. 6. The contents of amino acids in white ginseng were slightly decreased but those in red ginseng were not changed during the storage time. 7. The content ratio of free amino acids to total amino acids were 1:3.

• Korean Journal of Pharmacognosy
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• v.49 no.3
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• pp.246-254
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• 2018

Pectin lyase-modified red ginseng extract (GS-E3D) is a newly developed ginsenoside Rd-enriched ginseng extract. This study was designed to investigate the skin safety of GS-E3D. Single oral toxicity, single dermal toxicity, bovine corneal opacity and permeability (BCOP) assay, skin irritation test with $SkinEthic^{TM}$ human epidermis model, skin sensitization local lymph node assay, and human patch test, were examined. The oral and dermal $LD_{50}$ value of GS-E3D was over 2,000 mg/kg in rats. GS-E3D was identified as a non-irritant to skin in BCOP assay, human epidermis models, and patch test from the 32 human subjects. The skin sensitization potential of GS-E3D was less than 25% in local lymph node assay. These results indicate that GS-E3D can be used as a safe ingredient without adverse effects in various skin care products.