• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.42 no.2
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• pp.146-157
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• 2009

Korean diet is high in plant foods but also high in salted vegetables. World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) recommends consumption of fruits and vegetables excluding salted vegetables for prevention cancer. This study aimed to analyze relations between intakes of salted and non-salted vegetables and socioeconomic factors, providing a data for targeted groups in promotion of fruits and vegetables consumption. Dietary and socioeconomic status data of the 5,400 subjects over 30 years of age from the 2005 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANESIII) were used. Dietary intake data from KNHANESIII was obtained by one day 24-hour recall method. Mean daily intakes of salted vegetables, non-salted vegetables and fruits of subjects were 151 g, 237 g, and 71 g respectively. Mean daily intake of salted vegetables was significantly higher in men than women for daily amount (173 g vs. 133 g) as well as percentage of total food intake (9.9% vs. 9.6%). Subjects living in rural area consumed more salted vegetables. Salted vegetables as percent of total food were lower in subjects with higher education levels (p < 0.001). Intakes of non-salted vegetables were significantly affected by age and gender. Intake levels of fruit were significantly higher in younger groups, in females, and subjects with higher income and education levels (p < 0.05). Average intake of fruits and non-salted vegetables was 307 g, lower than WCRF recommended level of 400 g for personal guideline. Intake of salted vegetables was positively correlated with sodium intake (Pearson's correlation coefficient, r = 0.43) but less so with potassium (r = 0.16) and other micronutrients intake (r < 0.1). On the other hand, non-salted vegetables had higher correlations with potassium (r = 0.45), carotene (r = 0.38), vitamin A (r = 0.37), iron (r = 0.34) and low for sodium (r = 0.13). Fruits intake was highly correlated with vitamin C intake (r = 0.46). Proportion of subjects satisfying WCRF personal guideline of fruits and non-salted vegetables was 25.7%. Results of this study indicate that intake of salted vegetable is considerably high among Koreans, and it is highly correlated with sodium intake and less so with other micronutrients.

• Journal of the Korean Dietetic Association
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• v.23 no.3
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• pp.316-327
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• 2017

This study was conducted to compare the nutrient intake, physical characteristics, and health status according to daily fruits and vegetables intake of adolescents using the Korean national health and nutrition examination survey for the sixth period (2013~2015). Subjects were 1,096 adolescents aged 13~18 years. The average daily intake of fruits and vegetables was $518.49{\pm}4.94g$. The two groups (insufficient, sufficient) were divided by fruits and vegetables intake (<500 g/day, ${\geq}500g/day$) and the ratio of the insufficient group was 75.9% while that of the adequate group was 24.1%. The mean of intake of energy, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, iron, thiamin, niacin, vitamin C and dietary fiber differed significantly between the insufficient and sufficient groups (P<0.01, P<0.001). However, there was no significant difference in physical characteristics between groups. The self-perceived health status was better in the sufficient group (P<0.05), while the insufficient group was aware of more stress in their daily life (P<0.05). The serum triglyceride was significantly higher in the sufficient group (P<0.05), while the total cholesterol was lower (P<0.05). As the characteristics of fruits and vegetables are different, it will be necessary to determine standards for consumption of each type. It is also necessary to consider whether a fruits and vegetables intake of 500 g would be a reasonable standard for adolescents. Nevertheless, the results of this study indicate efforts to increase fruits and vegetables intake by young people are necessary.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.6 no.3
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• pp.542-552
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• 2001

The purpose of this study was to investigate dietary habits and food compliance in stroke patients. One-hundred sixty eight elderly stroke patients and 97 young patients with first -ever stroke admitted to Asan Medical Center between 1994 and 1998 were studied. Using a structured interview, we assessed food intake. food consumption frequency and compliance to low salt, low meat hight fish and high fruit and vegetable diets. These results were analyzed with X$^2$, t-tests, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the SAS package program. Salted food intake and cholesterol-containing food frequency were increased whereas frequency of fruits and vegetables intake was decreased in young stroke patients compared to the elderly. Meat intake and cholesterol-containing food frequency were increased in the males compared to the females in elderly stroke patients. and fish intake and cholesterol-containing food frequency were higher in the males than the females in the young. In patients with high economic status, frequency of fruits and vegetables was elevated. Also compliance the low meat and high fruit and vegetable diet in young patients was lower than that in the elderly. When the life-style risk factors influencing the food intake of frequency of fruits and vegetables was affected by education in young stroke patients. In elderly stroke patients, meat intake frequency of cholesterol-containing foods and fruits and vegetables were influenced by sex and /or income. Our results suggest that dietary intake of salt meat ,cholesterol-containing foods. fruits and vegetables in stroke patients may vary with age, sex the presence of risk factors or economic status therefore guidelines and nutrition education should by formulated to prevent stroke recurrence based on dietary habits and risk factors of individual patients.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.9 no.4
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• pp.411-419
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• 2015

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: This study analyzed factors affecting consumption frequencies of vegetables and fruits in Korean adolescents. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Consumption frequencies of vegetables and fruits, general characteristics, meal, health, and other variables were analyzed for a total of 147,047 adolescents who participated in the KYRBWS (Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey) conducted in 2006 and 2011 by the Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. RESULTS: Consumption frequencies of vegetables and fruits more than once a day significantly decreased in 2011 compared to 2006 based on Chi-square test conducted for every factor employed in the study. Analysis of factors showed that consumption frequencies of vegetables and fruits were reduced in both study years as subjective income decreased, whereas intake frequencies increased with mother's education level and reduction of adolescent stress level. CONCLUSIONS: In general, consumption frequencies of vegetables and fruits decreased in 2011 compared to those in 2006. Thus, future research needs to improve dietary guidelines for nutrition education in order for students to recognize the importance of food consumption and necessity of increasing daily serving sizes of vegetables and fruits for their balanced consumption.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.51 no.5
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• pp.423-432
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• 2018

Purpose: Cataract is a major cause of a loss of eye sight, and is a critical health issue in an aging society. The oxidative stresses to the lens due to various exterior/interior stimuli leads to degenerative changes of the visual system, resulting in cataract. Therefore, reducing the level of oxidative damage is critical in the prevention of the disease. This study examined the association between the risk of cataract and intake of fruits and vegetables, the major dietary source of antioxidants. Methods: Using the data of Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2012, the intake of fruits and vegetables of 1,332 males (222 cases) and 2,012 females (377 cases) were analyzed, taking into account the cataract phenotype. Their dietary intake was categorized in 6 groups: TV (total vegetables), F (fruits), TVF (TV+F), SV (salted vegetables), NSV (Non-SV), and NSVF (NSV+F). The level of intakes were evaluated referring to the recommendation level of various dietary guidelines. Results: The presence of cataract was associated with some type of fruit and vegetable intake. In males, the controls had more TVF (p < 0.001), TV (p = 0.001), SV (p = 0.012), NSV (p = 0.007), and NSVF (p < 0.001) intake than the cases, and the lower intake of TVF (< 500g), TV (300g), NSV (< 100g), and NSVF (< 400g) increased the risk of cataract by up to 1.7 fold [95% confidence interval: 1.06-2.71]. In females, the controls also had a higher intake of TVF (p < 0.001), TV (p = 0.042), and NSVF (p < 0.001), but the intake of such fruits and vegetables did not predict the meaningful risk of cataract. The intake of SV and F was not associated with the cataract phenotype in either males or females. Conclusion: The intake of fruits and vegetables can modify the risk of cataract in Korean males and a sufficient intake of those could be effective in the prevention of cataract.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.4 no.4
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• pp.303-310
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• 2010

Consumption of vegetables and fruits is associated with a reduced risk of stroke, but it is unclear whether their protective effects are due to antioxidant vitamins or folate and metabolically related B vitamins. The purpose of the study was to test the hypothesis that intake of fruits and vegetables, which are major sources of antioxidant and vitamin B complex vitamins, reduces the risk of stroke. Cases consisted of patients diagnosed with first event of stroke (n = 69). Controls (n = 69) were age-, sex-, and body mass index-matched to cases. Multivariable-adjusted regression analysis showed that subjects who ate four to six servings of vegetable per day had a 32% reduction in the risk of stroke, and those with more than six servings per day had a reduction of 69% after adjusting for age, sex, BMI, and family history of stroke. Intakes of total fat, plant fat, calcium, potassium, vitamin $B_1$, vitamin $B_2$, vitamin $B_6$, niacin, and folate were significantly and negatively associated with the risk of stroke. Although the trend was not significant, stroke risk was reduced in the second quartile (1.21-2.66 servings per week) of fish intake. However, intake of fruits (average daily intake of 1.0 serving) and antioxidant vitamins such as carotene, vitamin C, and vitamin E was not associated with the risk of stroke. In conclusion, our observational study suggests that intake of fat and vegetables, rich sources of vitamin B complex, calcium, and potassium may protect against stroke.

• Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.4 no.3
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• pp.143-150
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• 2002

The objective of this study is to establish outcome validity for three instruments that assess whether subjects met recommendations for daily servings of fruits and vegetables for“Stage of Change”research. A convenience sample of 294 college students was recruited from introductory nutrition classes at Michigan State University in the United States. To measure servings of fruits and vegetables, separately, three types of methods (self-rated intake, 24-hour recall and food frequency) were used in comparison to the servings from a three-day food record, the criterion used. The outcome validity was assessed based on whether or not at least two servings of fruits and three servings of vegetables were reported. Validity was assessed by sensitivity, to measure the ability to detect low intakes, and by specificity, to measure ability to detect adequate intakes. Cohen's kappa was used as well to examine the agreement between the three methods and a three-day food record. The results showed, for fruits, the 24-hour recall had the best agreement (recall 0.54, self-rated : 0.31, food frequency : 0.29) with a three-day food record for servings consumed by people in pre-action or post-action stages. Sensitivity for fruit was also best using a recall (0.81). For vegetables, however, all three methods had low agreement (food frequency : 0.27, recall : 0.21, self-rated : 0.17) with the results of the three-day food record. Self-rated intakes for vegetables had the best sensitivity (0.66) and the food frequency had the best specificity (0.73). Therefore, researcher can use the 24-hour recall method to identify people who consume inadequate servings of fruit. To detect adequate vegetable intake, the food frequency was best of the three methods. Accuracy may be improved by probing for vegetables in mixed dishes and on sandwiches. (J Community Nutrition 4(3)： 143∼150, 2002)

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.6 no.3
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• pp.263-269
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• 2012

We investigated whether socioeconomic differences affect fruit and vegetable (FV) consumption with respect to total intake and intake of various FV subgroups. Our study included 6667 adults aged 40-64 years who completed a dietary survey in the fourth Korean NHANES (2007-2009). FV intake was estimated from 24-hour recalls and food frequency questionnaires. Differences in FV consumption related to educational attainment were analyzed according to different nutritional categories of FV. Both men and women in the low-education group had the lowest intake of total FV and total fruits, and women also had the lowest intake of total vegetables. Also lowest in this group was consumption of mushrooms and vegetables (excluding kimchi) among men, and cruciferous and allium vegetables (excluding Chinese cabbage and radish) among women, while kimchi consumption was the highest in this group. Additionally, an association between educational level and intake of citrus fruits was evident among men. Adults in the low-education group consumed less carotene-rich FV, red fruit and/or vegetables, and dark-green leafy vegetables, fewer total vegetable dishes, and fewer types of fruit than in other groups. Men in this group had the lowest intake of yellow/orange fruit and/or vegetables, and women consumed the least folate-rich FV. There is a clear association between educational attainment and FV intake with regard to total intake, and to specific nutrients, bioactive compounds, colors, and variety.

• Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.4 no.3
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• pp.164-179
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• 2002

A survey was conducted to examine the food intake of 285 Korean female students attending a secondary school in Seoul. Food intake was assessed using a food frequency based on the Korean Food Tower which consists of five food groups, i.e., grain products, vegetables and fruits, meat, milk, and fats and sweets. To describe food intake descriptive statistics were obtained using SPSS. The food frequency analysis indicated that the participants ate rice, cabbage kimchi, radish, and soybean/red pepper paste most frequently along with milk, ice cream, tea, and seasonal fruits such as citrus fruits, apples, watermelon, and grapes for snacks. Distributions of the total standardized serving frequency for each food group indicated that approximately 84, 83, 45, 60, and 34%, respectively, of the respondents met the recommended serving frequency for grain products, vegetables and fruits, meat, milk, and fats and sweets groups(mean servings per day 5.5, 10.6, 5.5, 2.1, 3.5). Income was the only demographic factor that affected food intake, particularly with respect to meat, milk, and fats and sweets(p < .01). In Korea, these food groups are generally more expensive than the other ones. (J Community Nutrition 4(3) : 164∼179, 2002)

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.19 no.5
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• pp.468-478
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• 2014

Objectives: Intake of fruits and vegetables has protective effects against stroke attack. This study intended to examine the status of consuming fruits and vegetables and to find out which factors may influence the frequency of consumption of fruits and vegetables in individuals with a history of stroke. Methods: The data of 208 subjects from 5th (2010, 2011) Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHNES) who reported a stroke diagnosis was used for analysis. To identify major factors influencing the consumption of fruits and vegetables, a classification-tree analysis was carried out. Results: Among those who reported a stroke diagnosis, the frequencies of consumption of fruits and vegetables were influenced by their age, place of residence (urban or rural), economic status, educational level, occupation, number of family members, frequency of eating out, and having meals (breakfast or lunch) with family members. Two factors from fruits and three factors from vegetables were generated by exploratory factor analyses. Urban residents ate fruits and vegetables more frequently in all factors than rural residents. Eating frequencies of 'seasonal fruits (orange, apple, strawberry, melon, pear and watermelon)', 'easily-accessible fruits (persimmon, tangerine, grape, peach, banana)', and 'Western-style vegetables (cabbage, mushroom, carrot, tomato, spinach)' were influenced by the socioeconomic status. Eating frequencies of 'Korean-style vegetables (bean sprout, radish leaves, pumpkin/squash, sea weed)', 'preserved vegetables (Korean cabbage, radish, laver, cucumber)' were influenced by having breakfast with family members. Conclusions: The results of this study suggested that by eating more fruits and vegetables, more preventive effects against secondary stroke attack are expected in stroke patients who live in the rural areas and who do not eat breakfast with family members. In addition, more outreach and education programs are needed for them.