• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.7 no.1
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• pp.102-110
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• 2002

Cigarette smoking has long been recognized as a major risk factor in the development of coronary heart disease. Several investigators have reported the strong association between smoking and high serum cholesterol, triglyceride concentration, SFA and low HDL cholesterol, PUFA and $\omega$6 concentrations. Therefore, this study was done to investigate the effect of smoking on the serum lipid profile and fatty acid composition of college women. Sixty-one non-smokers and twenty-seven smokers were selected from college women students in the Seoul area. Their lipid intake, serum lipid concentration and fatty acid composition were examined. There were no differences in the general characteristics and anthropometric indices between the smokers and non-smokers. However, alcohol consumption was significantly higher in smokers than non-smokers (p<0.001). The daily caloric intake of smokers and non-smokers were 1875.84 kcal and 1915.53 kacl, respectively. On the other hand, the mean daily intake of lipids and cholesterol were significantly lower in smokers (p<0.05). In smokers, the mean concentrations of serum total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and the LDL-C/HDL-C ratio were higher, and the compositions of EPA and DHA were lowe than in non-smokers. There was a negative correlation between the serum triglyceride and PUFA levels in the two groups. Also, serum HDL-C correlated negatively with MUFA in smokers and non-smokers (p<0.01). These results suggest that smoking cause inadequate changes in serum lipid profile and serum fatty acid composition, thereby increasing the tendency for coronary heart disease.

• Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life
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• v.16 no.5
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• pp.515-522
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• 2006

The purpose of this study was to compare the nutrient intake, dietary habits and serum lipid profiles of smoking male college students to those of non-smoking subjects. The subjects were composed of two group: 111 smokers and 120 non-smokers was used along with a questionnaire. Anthropometric measure, dietary intakes using 24-hours recall method were compared. The average ages of smokers and non-smokers were 21.6 and 21.1 years old, respectively. The height, weight and BMI of smokers and non-smokers were no significant difference. The average numbers of smoked cigarettes were 15.9/d and the average packyear was 4.9 in the smokers. About 92.8% of the smokers drank alcoholic beverages, while 72.5% of the non-smokers did. The smokers tended to eat less breakfast meal, but drink coffee more often compared to the non-smokers. The mean daily energy and food intake were 2,135.8 kcal and 1,169.5 g in the smokers and 2,034.3 kcal and 1,229.4 g in the non-smokers. The smokers consumed significantly higher intake of fat. The serum triglyceride level of the smokers was significantly higher than that of the non-smokers. In conclusion, the smokers of this study showed a more undesirable dietary intake in the light of their high Int an alcoholic beverages, and coffee. Therefore, it could be suggested that more systematic research be conducted with respect to serum triglyceride and smoking and that increased nutrition education and guidelines for smokers are required.

• Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.1 no.2
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• pp.88-97
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• 1999

The purpose of this study was to investigate the nutritional status of serum minerals, ceruloplasmin, and ferroxidase activity in female adolescent students according to their smoking status. The subjects were 87 non-smokers and 88 smokers, who were female high school students. The smokers were divided into tow groups by smoking status, 35 light smokers(pack-year<1) and 53 smokers(pack-year$\geq$1). The serum concentrations of 6 minerals were determined by ICP emission spectroanalyzer. The serum concentration of ceruloplasmin and ceruloplasmin ferroxidase activity were determined. All data were statistically analyzed by SAS PC package program. The serum minerals concentrations of all subjects were in a normal range. There were significantly differences in the concentrations of serum copper, zinc, magnesium, and phosphorus by smoking status while there were no significant differences in the concentrations of serum iron and manganese by smoking status. Furthermore there were no significant differences in the ceruloplasmin concentration and ferroxidase activity by smoking status. In conclusion, smoking status altered the serum levels of some minerals in healthy young women. The minerals levels in light smokers with relatively short pack-year(pack-year<1) were altered compared to those in non-smokers or smokers. This finding seemed to be consistent with the results of previously published data related to antioxidant vitamin and lipid peroxide levels. However further research is needed to clarify these findings in female adolescent smokers.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.2 no.1
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• pp.33-43
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• 1997

In order to investigate the dietary intakes and physical characteristics in college women smokers, interviews using questionnaires were done on 33 smokers and 42 nonsmokers residing in seoul area. General living habits, dietary habits, food consumption frequency and nutrient intake by quick estimation were investigated through direct interviews with subjects. Subjects height, weight and blood pressure were measured, and body fat percentage were statistically analyzed using Bio-electrical Impedence Fatness Analyzer(GIF-891). All data were statistically analyzed by SAS PC package program ; percentage or mean and standard error were examined for each item, and the significant difference was evaluated by chi-square test or Student's t-test at $\alpha$=0.05. In the analysis of taste and food preference, smokers consumed larger amount of alcohol and coffee than nonsmokers ; they also disliked sweet taste. The results of food consumption frequency data also showed that smokers consumed less fish, milk and fruits but consumed more instant foods than nonsmokers. As a result of anthropometric measurements, height, age, and 패요 fat percentage showed no difference, but there was a significant difference in weight, BMI, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure. Energy intake in nonsmokers was 1640 ㎉/day(CHO : Pro : Fat=66.0 : 14.7 : 19.3), in smokers. Intakes of calcium, iron, vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin B1, vitamin B2, and niacin in smokers were not significantly different from those of nonsmokers.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.2 no.2
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• pp.159-168
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• 1997

This study was done to compare the nutritional status of antioxidant vitamins between college women smokers and nonsmokers. Dietary intakes and serum levels of antioxidant vitamins were determined in 33 smokers and 42 nonsmokers residing in the Seoul area. Dietary intakes of vitamin A and C were determined by a quick and convenient dietary intake method. Serum vitamin C level was measured by 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine method and serum levels of vitamin A and E were measured by HPLC. The mean A intake of nonsmokers and smokers was 504.3$\mu$gR.E./day and 450. 4$\mu$gR.E./day and the mean vitamic C intake of nonsmokers and smokers was 51.6mg/day and 50.2mg/day, reapectively. There was no difference in the dietary intakes of antioxidant vitamins between smokers and nonsmokers. The serum vitamin A level, 0.71mg/1 in nonsmokers was not significantly different from that of 0.74mg/1 in smokers. However, the serum vitamin C level, 7.94mg/1 in smokers was 15% lower(p$\ll$0.05) than that of 9.30mg/1 in nonsmokers. The serum vitamin E level, 18.15mg/1 in smoders was also 34% lower(p$\ll$0.05) than that of 27.58mg/1 in nonsmokers. There was no significant correlation between dietary intakes and serum levels of vitamin A and C for both smokers and nonsmokers. These results suggest that cigarette smokers need more dietary intakes of vitamin C and E than do nonsmokers to reach the same serum level.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.2 no.4
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• pp.515-522
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• 1997

This study was done to compare serum levels of lipids, trace minerals, ceruloplasmin and ferroxidase activity between female college smokers and nonsmokers. Serum levels of lipids, Cu, Zn, ceruloplasmin and ferroxidase activity were determined in 33 smokers and 42 nonsmokers residing in the Seoul area. Serum levels of TG, total cholesterol and HDl-cholesterol were measured using test kits. Serum Cu Zn were determined by the AAS. Serum ceruloplasimin level and ferroxidase activity were determined by spectrophotometric methods. All data were statistically analyzed by the SAS PC package program. Mean and standard errors were calculated for each item, and the significance of the difference between two groups was evaluated by Student's t-test at p〈0.05. There was no significant difference in levels of total cholesterol, TG, VLDL-cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, LDL/HDL and atherogenic index, but HDL-cholesterol level was significantly lower(p$\ll$0.05) in female college smokers than in nonsmokers. Serum zinc level showed no significant difference, whereas copper level was significantly higher in smokers, consequently yielding higher Cu/Zn ratio in smoking college women. Ceruloplasmin level was 32.6mg/dl in smoking college women, which was significantly higher(p$\ll$0.05) than that of 28.6mg/dl in nonsmokers. However, cerulopasmin ferroxidase activity, 0.34U/mg in nonsmokers was higher(p$\ll$0.05) than that of 0.29U/mg in smokers. From these results, it is confirmed that cigarette smoking itself has a very detrimental effect on health and mineral nutritional status although the smoking history is relatively short among college women(pack-years=1.7). (Korean J Community Nutrition 2(4) : 515-522, 1997)

• Journal of Korean Academy of Rural Health Nursing
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• v.9 no.1
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• pp.33-45
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• 2014

Purpose: This study was done to identify attitudes to smoking, beliefs about smoking and factors influencing nicotine dependence in woman smokers. Methods: Data was collected from 131 women smokers, who visited a public health center between January and July. 2012. Collected data were analyzed using the SPSS 18.0 program. Results: Mean score for attitude to smoking was $23.7{\pm}3.2$, beliefs about smoking, $18.6{\pm}2.9$, and nicotine dependence, $4.3{\pm}2.1$. Attitude to smoking of the woman smokers was significantly different according to marital status, beliefs about smoking were significantly different according to marital status and being employed. Nicotine dependence was significantly different according to frequency of alcohol consumption, stress, number of cigarettes smoked. There was a correlation between attitude to smoking and beliefs about smoking. Age when starting to smoke, number of cigarettes, and length of time one has smoked accounted for 31.0% of nicotine dependence. Conclusion: The results indicate that increasing knowledge and improving attitudes toward smoking as well as training on stress management and exercise are needed. Also, a distinct mediation should be developed for women smokers. Especially, in-depth research is needed to identify psycho-social behavior-related variables for the health promotion of young women smokers.

• Journal of Korean Academy of Fundamentals of Nursing
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• v.6 no.2
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• pp.185-197
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• 1999

For the past 10 years, the number of male smokers has dwindled. On the other hand, the number of female smokers has increased abruptly. Cigarette smoking is more hazardous to a woman than to a man because it can affect her health and her fetus during pregnancy. Many studies show that cigarette smoking is one of the most important risk factors determining the mortality and the morbidity of various kinds of diseases such as lung cancer and pharyngeal cancer. But, it is also known to be one of the risk factors we can handle and prevent easily. The subjects of this study consisted of 263 female nursing students in Seoul and Chonbuk Province. Using questionnaires, we were collected data from December 1 to December 10 1998. The questionnaire included 24 questions related to environmental factors and 14 questions related with self-efficacy. The statistical analysis was done with SPSS ver. 8.0(SPSS Inc. U.S.). The results of this study are as follows. 1) Cigarette smoking in women was influenced by her family or friends. That is to say, the higher number of her friends or family members who smoked cigarettes, the more likely a woman was to become a smoker. Economic status and knowledge level about the risks of cigarette smoking were also related to women smoking. So, women with lower levels of economic status and less knowledge about the risks of cigarette smoking were the more likely to become smokers. 2) Woman with higher levels of self-efficacy were less likely to become smokers. 3) The factors influencing a woman's smoking were whether her friends smoked, whether her mother smoked and her self-efficacy in that order. Environmental factors, self-efficacy were found to be important factors influencing smoking in women. It is suggested a quit-smoking program for women college students, be based on consideration of these environmental factors and self-efficacy.

• Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention
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• v.16 no.9
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• pp.4081-4088
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• 2015

Background: Men and women who smoke tend to show less compliance to screening guidelines than non-smokers. However, a recent study in Korea showed that self-reported female smokers constituted less than half of cotinine-verified smokers. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify hidden smokers using cotinine-verified method and examine cancer screening behavior according to biochemically verified smoking status. Materials and Methods: Among 5,584 women aged 30 years and older who participated in the Fourth and Fifth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES), 372 (6.66%) hidden smokers were identified based on interview responses and verified by urinary cotinine levels. We compared cancer-screening behavior (cervical, breast, stomach, and colon cancer) of female hidden smokers to that of non-smokers and selfreported smokers by cross-sectional analysis. Results: Hidden female smokers had significantly lower adherence to breast cancer screening compared to non-smokers (aOR (adjusted odds ratio) [95% CI] = 0.71 [0.51-0.98]). Adherence to stomach cancer (aOR [95% CI] = 0.75 [0.54-1.03]) and cervical cancer (aOR [95% CI] = 0.85 [0.66-1.10]) screening was also lower among hidden female smokers compared to non-smokers. Self-reported (current) smokers showed lowest adherence to cervical cancer (aOR: 0.64, 95% CI0.47-0.87), breast cancer (0.47 [0.32-0.68]), stomach cancer (0.66[0.46-0.95]), and colon cancer (0.62 [0.38-1.01]) screening compared to non-smokers, followed by female hidden smokers, then non-smokers. These lower adherence rates of current smokers were attenuated after we incorporated hidden smokers into the current smoker group. Conclusions: Cancer screening adherence of female hidden smokers was lower than cotinine-verified non-smokers but higher than current smokers. Considering the risk of smoking-related cancer among women, identifying hidden smokers is important to encourage appropriate cancer screening.

• Tuberculosis and Respiratory Diseases
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• v.84 no.2
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• pp.159-166
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• 2021

Background: E-cigarettes are steadily gaining popularity in Korea. However, the characteristics of e-cigarette smokers, especially nicotine dependence and stress susceptibility, have not been evaluated in comparison to those of nonsmokers or combustible cigarette smokers in Korea. Methods: In this study, 28,059 participants from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2013-2017) were classified into the following three groups: non-smokers, smokers (current smokers and ex-smokers of combustible cigarettes only), and e-smokers (current smokers and ex-smokers of e-cigarettes regardless of combustible cigarette use). Results: Among the participants, 16,980 (60.5%), 9,247 (33.0%), and 1,832 (6.4%) subjects were non-smokers, smokers, and e-smokers, respectively. E-smokers were younger, more educated, and had a higher household income than non-smokers or smokers. The number of e-smokers who smoked within 5 minutes of waking up (31.5% vs. 19.8%, p<0.001) and who planned to quit smoking within 6 months (39.1% vs. 35.7%, p<0.05) was greater than that of smokers. E-smokers perceived stress as "very much" (7.0% vs. 4.4%, p<0.001) and "a lot" (29.1% vs. 20.5%, p<0.001) compared to non-smokers. Suicidal ideation (6.5% vs. 4.7%, p<0.001), plans (2.4% vs. 1.3%, p<0.001), and attempts (1.1% vs. 0.5%, p<0.001) were higher in e-smokers than in non-smokers. Depressive episodes in 1 year (14.2% vs. 11.4%, p<0.05) and suicidal plans (2.4% vs. 1.8%, p<0.05) were more frequent among e-smokers than among smokers. Conclusion: E-smokers were younger, more educated, and had a higher income, but they were more dependent on nicotine and susceptible to stress than non-smokers and smokers. Smoking cessation counseling should be tailored according to the characteristics of e-smokers.