• Nutrition Research and Practice
• /
• 제7권3호
• /
• pp.192-198
• /
• 2013

Dietary sodium intake is considered one of the major causal factors for hypertension. Thus, to control the increase of blood pressure and reduce the risk of hypertension-related clinical complications, a reduction in sodium intake is recommended. The present study aimed at determining the association of dietary sodium intake with meal and snack frequency, snacking time, and taste preference in Korean young adults aged 20-26 years, using a 125-item dish-frequency questionnaire. The mean dietary sodium intakes of men and women were 270.6 mmol/day and 213.1 mmol/day, which were approximately 310% and 245% of the daily sodium intake goal for Korean men and women, respectively. Dietary sodium intake was positively correlated with systolic blood pressure in the total group, and BMI in the total and men-only groups. In the total and men-only groups, those who consumed meals more times per day consumed more dietary sodium, but the number of times they consumed snacks was negatively correlated with dietary sodium intake in the total, men-only, and women-only groups. In addition, those who consumed snacks in the evening consumed more sodium than those who did so in the morning in the men-only group. The sodium intake was also positively associated with preference for salty and sweet taste in the total and women-only groups. Such a high intake of sodium in these young subjects shows that a reduction in sodium intake is important for the prevention of hypertension and related diseases in the future.

• 한국식품영양학회지
• /
• 제31권3호
• /
• pp.395-399
• /
• 2018

The objective of this study is to analyze characteristics of high sodium intaker and factors affecting sodium intake using the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES). For this study we used two statistical methods, the cluster analysis and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Cluster analysis was used to classify groups of sodium intake. For the analysis of the factors affecting sodium intake, we applied the ANOVA. The average daily intake for Korean is about 3,783 mg sodium per day; this amount is high than recommendation of the WTO. The demographic characteristics of people with higher sodium intake were found to be men more so women, and younger men with a higher education. Height, weight and size of a person's waistline were also characteristics of those with higher sodium intake. Also worker, smoker, those without a hypertension diagnosis, as well as those with a higher the drinking rate and higher eating out frequency tended to have a higher intake of sodium. The Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS) had established a plan to reduce sodium intake to 3,500 mg per day to 2020. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to educate people about high sodium intake, particularly those at higher risk, according to the results of this study. Through these efforts, the social costs of high sodium intake could be reduced, improving national health.

• 대한지역사회영양학회지
• /
• 제25권4호
• /
• pp.317-328
• /
• 2020

Objectives: The objective of this study was to verify the validity of a mobile phone application (app) that applies a 24-hour dietary recall with meal photos, as a means of being a more accurate method of estimating dietary sodium intake. Methods: Of the 203 subjects enrolled, 172 subjects (84 males and 88 females) were selected for the final analysis, excluding those with an intake less than 500 kcal and urine output less than 500 ml. Dietary sodium assessment methods used for comparing with the 24-hour urinary sodium excretion are as follows: 1) face-to-face 24-hour dietary recall, 2) 24-hour dietary recall using the mobile app, 3) face-to-face 24-hour dietary recall considering liquid intakes from soup, stew, water kimchi and noodle, etc (liquid-based dishes), 4) 24-hour dietary recall using the mobile app considering liquid intakes from liquid-based dishes, and 5) food frequency questionnaire. Repeated ANOVA with Bonferroni method was used for comparing the average sodium intake, and Pearson's correlation was applied to correlate the methods used. Results: In women, no significant difference was observed in the average sodium intake between all methods. Moreover, analysis in men and total adults revealed no significant difference between the 24-hour urinary sodium secretion, and 24-hour dietary recall using the app and 24-hour dietary recall using the app considering liquid intakes. Sodium intake by food frequency questionnaire was significantly different when compared with the intake determined from 24-hour urinary sodium excretion. Sodium intake from all methods (except food frequency questionnaire) significantly correlated with values obtained from 24-hour urine sodium excretion. Conclusions: Results of this study validated a mobile phone app using a 24-hour dietary recall with meal photos to better estimate dietary sodium intakes. It is believed that further studies in the future will enable the application as a tool to more accurately determine sodium intake.

• 동아시아식생활학회지
• /
• 제26권6호
• /
• pp.550-558
• /
• 2016

This study was conducted to provide guideline data for future instructional materials and practice guidelines on reforming the dietary life of military personnel in terms of lowering sodium intake. A total of 264 persons were surveyed to obtain basic data on sodium intake and understanding of sodium. The study also examined the practice that is carried forward in this endeavor. The subjects liked 'kimchi' and 'rice with topping', and these could be the reason for higher salt intake. Career soldiers scored higher in terms of nutrition knowledge than enlisted soldiers (p<0.01). Nutrition education concerning sodium intake was statistically insignificant between the two, whereas career soldiers showed a higher experience rate at these nutrition educational events. Career soldiers also had with higher sodium intake than enlisted soldiers, and this difference was statistically significant (p<0.01). In terms of practice, officers were more likely to experience difficulty in putting the theory of less sodium into practice than their enlisted soldiers counterparts (p<0.05), and the main reason behind this difficulty was that they did not feel the need to lower their sodium intake. Soldiers should be well educated about sodium and healthy diet during their service. Education should focus on lowering sodium intake and changing their attitudes and awareness of this issue in order to elicit behavioral changes.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
• /
• 제17권2호
• /
• pp.175-191
• /
• 2023

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: The scientific evidence of a sodium-obesity association is limited by sodium intake assessments. Our specific aim is to synthesize the association between dietary sodium intake and obesity across the sodium intake assessments as evidenced by systematic reviews in adults. SUBJECTS/METHODS: A systematic search identified systematic reviews comparing the association of dietary sodium intakes with obesity-related outcomes such as body mass index (BMI), body weight, waist circumference, and risk of (abdominal) obesity. We searched PubMed on October 24, 2022. To assess the Risk of Bias in Systematic Reviews (ROBIS), we employed the ROBIS tool. RESULTS: This review included 3 systematic reviews, consisting of 39 unique observational studies (35 cross-sectional studies and 4 longitudinal studies) and 15 randomized controlled trials (RCTs). We found consistently positive associations between dietary sodium intake and obesity-related outcomes in cross-sectional studies. Studies that used 24-h urine collection indicated a greater BMI for those with higher sodium intake (mean difference = 2.27 kg/m²; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.59-2.51; P < 0.001; I² = 77%) compared to studies that used spot urine (mean difference = 1.34 kg/m²; 95% CI, 1.13-1.55; P < 0.001; I² = 95%) and dietary methods (mean difference = 0.85 kg/m²; 95% CI, 0.1-1.51; P < 0.05; I² = 95%). CONCLUSIONS: Quantitative synthesis of the systematic reviews has shown that cross-sectional associations between dietary sodium intake and obesity outcomes were substantially different across the sodium intake assessments. We need more high-quality prospective cohort studies and RCTs using 24-h urine collection to examine the causal effects of sodium intake on obesity.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
• /
• 제30권6호
• /
• pp.669-678
• /
• 1997

This study was designed to estimate the sodium intake of preschool children . To determine the sodium intake & excretion of preschool children in Korea, dietary behaviors, anthropometry, intakes of dietary nutrients, urinary sodium excretion and preference for salty foods were measured in 42 preschool children (male 26 , female 16, average6.5 years old) and their mothers. The results are summarized as follows. Mean daily urinary sodium excretion was 52.7 mEq(1,212.1mg). This value did not show remarkable change compared with the other studied that were accomplished in the similarage group for about the last ten years. And the subjects showed lower preference for salty taste than those of elementary school children and adults. Mean daily lower preference for salty taste than those of elementary school children and adults. Mean daily urinary sodium excretion were significantly correlated with the frequency of eating out (p<0.01), potassium intake(p<0.001) and urinary sodium to potassium excretion ratio(p<0.001). But there weren't any correlations with mean daily sodium intake, blood pressure, dietary nutrients intake and the preference for salty taste.

• 대한지역사회영양학회지
• /
• 제19권6호
• /
• pp.558-567
• /
• 2014

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate recognition, dietary attitude and education needs for reducing sodium intakes of dietitian at customized home visiting health service (CHVHS). Methods: The subjects were 75 dietitian at CHVHS. We investigated several variables (recognition, dietary attitude, education needs for reducing sodium intakes) and determined sodium intakes level of subjects as 'low', 'middle' and 'high' by Dish Frequency Questionnaire 25 (DFQ 25). Also, we assessed the differences in recognition, dietary attitude, sodium intake level and education needs by dietitian career period (under 3 yrs vs. over 3 yrs) at CHVHS. Results: In recognition related reducing sodium intake, they showed 'checking a sodium content in nutrition labeling' score 2.5/4.0 and 'perception difference between sodium and salt' score 3.1/4.0. There was no difference in the recognition between under 3yrs' group and over 3yrs' group. In dietary attitude related reducing sodium intake, they showed 'palatability for salty taste' score 0.8/1.0, 'attitude in related soups' 0.7/1.0, 'attitude in related using natural spice' 0.6/1.0. There was a difference in 'attitude in related soups' between under 3yrs' group and over 3yrs' group (0.6 vs. 0.7). In sodium intake level by DFQ 25, they showed 'low group' 41.3%, 'middle group' 41.3% and 'high group' 17.3%. There was no difference in the distribution of sodium intake level by the career. In education needs related reducing sodium intakes, there were 'teaching experience' 93.3%, 'have a difficulty in teaching about reducing sodium intakes' 86.6%, and 'necessity of education for CHVHS dietitians' 100.0%. 'Needed education contents for CHVHS dietitians' were ranked as 'cooking way to reduce sodium intake' 58.7%, 'relation between hypertension and sodium' 17.3%, 'composing way to reduce sodium intake' 17.3%. There was a difference in needed education contents 'relationship between hypertension and sodium' (33.3% vs. 2.6%) and 'The cooking way to reduce sodium intake' (38.9% vs. 76.9%) by the career. Conclusions: The results suggested that a capacity training program for reducing sodium intake may be needed for dietitians at CHVHS to improve health of the community elderly. For effective training program related reducing sodium intake for dietitians at CHVHS, it may be necessary to consider the career period as dietitians at CHVHS.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
• /
• 제20권1호
• /
• pp.25-37
• /
• 1987

The purpose of this study was to estimate the sodium and potassium intakes and their metabolisms of preschool children, and to evaluate the relationship between the blood pressure and the related variables. The subjects consisted of ninety-five preschool children aged two to six years (male 57, female 38). Twenty-four hour urines of subjects were collected for the measurements of their volume, sodium, potassium, creatinine and urea nitrogen. At the same time, the questionnaire was designed to assess the sodium and potassium intakes. The' results obtained were as follows; 1) The urinary excretion of sodium in 24 hours was 54.6$\pm$22.4mEq(orI255.8mg)and dietary sodium intake was 2147.0$\pm$518.4mg. The dietary sodium intake significantly increased with increasing age(p=O.0151). However, daily sodium intake per unit body surface area did not show significant difference by age. 2)The urinary excretion of potassium in 24 hours was 14.2$\pm$7.6 mEq (or 555.2mg) and the potassium intake was 1133.8mg. 3) The urinary excretions of creatinine and urea nitrogen were 240.2$\pm$126.2mg and 2946.7$\pm$1693.9mg, respectively. 4) The principal food SOUTce of sodium intake was the seasoning group, which con\ulcornertributed 49.9% to total sodium intake. 5) The main food source of potassium intake was milk and milk products; from which 28.6% of total potassium intake was obtained. 6) The blood pressure showed highly positive correlations with height, weight and body surface area (p$\leq$O.OOl) . In addition, the blood pressure was found to be correlat\ulcornered with urinary sodium excetion and dietary sodium intake (p$\leq$O.Ol).

• 대한지역사회영양학회지
• /
• 제16권4호
• /
• pp.473-487
• /
• 2011

We attempted to define the sources of sodium intake for the Korean population at prepared dish level to provide a basis for developing sustainable nutrition policies and feasible programs for sodium intake reduction. Dietary intake data from 2008 and 2009 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey was used in the analysis for sodium intake sources. Sodium intake from individual dish consumed by each subject was calculated and used in delineating major sodium sources at dish and dish group level for sub-populations of different sex and age. Also, sodium intake was compared between eaters and non-eaters of some specific dish groups with considerable contribution to total sodium intake. The number of subjects included in the analysis was 18,022 and mean sodium intake was 4,600 mg/capita/day. Major sources of sodium intake at dish group level were in the following order: kimchi (1125 mg, 24.5%), noodles (572 mg, 12.4%), soups (488 mg, 10.6%), stews (399 mg, 8.7%), and cooked rice (284 mg, 6.2%). The magnitude of contribution to total sodium intake by soups and stews was different by age group. Sodium intake difference between eaters and non-eaters was much larger for kimchi group (2,343 mg for male, 1,452 mg for female) than for soups or stews. Interaction between consumption of aforementioned specific dish groups and age was highly significant (p < 0.0005) for both sexes. This study revealed an importance of having not only the control over sodium content of foods/dishes, but also the customized approach for different groups of population to accomplish an appreciable reduction in sodium intake.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
• /
• 제50권6호
• /
• pp.578-584
• /
• 2017

Purpose: Excess intake of sodium is a major diet-related risk factor for human diseases including hypertension and cancer as well as obesity and inflammation. However, findings are still controversial, and evidence is lacking in Koreans. Therefore, for better understanding of the role of dietary sodium intake in disease etiology, this study investigated the effects of dietary sodium intake on adiposity, inflammation, and hormones in Koreans. Methods: A total of 80 males and females joined the study. The general characteristics and dietary intake data were investigated by trained interviewers using a questionnaire and 24-h dietary recall, respectively. For the markers of adiposity, body weight, body mass index, percent of body fat, visceral fat area, and waist and hip circumference were measured. For the inflammation and hormone markers, leptin, adiponectin, insulin, tumor necrosis $factor-{\alpha}$, and interleukin-6 were also analyzed. Results: Multivariate linear regression analyses suggested that dietary sodium intake was not associated with adiposity. However, dietary sodium showed a significant association with insulin level: Plasma insulin concentration increased with sodium intake independent of other dietary intake or percent of body fat (${\beta}=0.296$, adjusted $r^2=0.276$, p < 0.01). Other markers for inflammation and hormonal responses were not associated with dietary sodium intake. Conclusion: Findings suggested that dietary sodium intake may be a critical modifying factor in the level of plasma insulin. However, it showed a limited effect on obesity and other inflammation markers and hormone levels. These findings should be confirmed in larger, well-designed investigations.