• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.43 no.4
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• pp.625-634
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• 2019

Background: Ginsenoside Rg3, a derivative of steroidal saponins abundant in ginseng, has a range of effects on cancer cells, including anti-cell proliferation and anti-inflammation activity. Here, we investigate two long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), STXBP5-AS1 and RFX3-AS1, which are hypomethylated and hypermethylated in the promoter region by Rg3 in MCF-7 cancer cells. Methods: The lncRNAs epigenetically regulated by Rg3 were mined using methylation array analysis. The effect of the lncRNAs on the apoptosis and proliferation of MCF-7 cells was monitored in the presence of Rg3 or Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) extract after deregulating the lncRNAs. The expression of the lncRNAs and their target genes was examined using qPCR and Western blot analysis. The association between the expression of the target genes and the survival rate of breast cancer patients was analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier Plotter platform. Results: STXBP5-AS1 and RFX3-AS1 exhibited anti- and pro-proliferation effects, respectively, in the cancer cells, and the effects of Rg3 and KRG extract on apoptosis and cell proliferation were weakened after deregulating the lncRNAs. Of the genes located close to STXBP5-AS1 and RFX3-AS1 on the chromosome, STXBP5, GRM1, RFX3, and SLC1A1 were regulated by the lncRNAs on the RNA and protein level. Breast cancer patients that exhibited a higher expression of the target genes of the lncRNAs had a higher metastasis-free survival rate. Conclusion: The current study is the first to identify lncRNAs that are regulated by the presence of Rg3 and KRG extract and that subsequently contribute to inhibiting the proliferation of cancer cells.

• Korean Journal of Plant Resources
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• v.25 no.4
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• pp.473-481
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• 2012

This study was conducted to investigate the contents of ginsenosides and physiochemical properties of Panax ginseng after 9 times steaming and drying treatment by using the new auto steamer which is more fast and simple than previous report. In the process of steaming and drying, the content of six major ginsenosides such as Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rc, Rb2 and Rd were gradually decreased. On the other hand, the content of seven minor ginsenosides includes Rh1, 20(S)-Rg2, 20(R)-Rg2, 20(S)-Rg3, 20(R)-Rg3, Rk1 and Rg5 were gradually increased. We observed the protopanxadiol ginsenosides such as Rb1, Rb2, Rc and Rd were converted into 20(S)-Rg3, 20(R)-Rg3, Rk1 and Rg5; similarly protopanxatriol ginsenosides of Rg1 and Re were converted into Rh1, 20(S)-Rg2 and 20(R)-Rg2. Based on the result of fresh ginseng, the contents of reducing sugar, acidic polysaccharide and total phenolic compounds were gradually increased and reached to maximum at 7 times repetitive steaming process of the fresh ginseng. Whereas DPPH radical scavenging activities were gradually decreased to 68% at 7 times steaming. New auto 9 repetitive steaming and drying process has similar production with original methods, but content of benzo(a)pyrene were not almost detected comparatively taking less time. The present results suggested that this method is best for the development of value-added ginseng industry related products.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture
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• v.24 no.2
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• pp.13-24
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• 1996

The purpose of this study is to suggest optimum level of the Ratio of Greenery within the frame of vision in the interior landscape design through the analysis of visual character and preference of the interior landscape. The concept of the RG was defined as the ratio of projected area of plants higher than 1.2M against background wall from eye level. 5 photography of Interior landscape space -- 10,20,30,40 and 50% of the RG-- were constructed by computer graphic techinques. Likert scale and semantic differential scale were used to analyse visual character and preference of the interior landscape space. The analysis results are as follows : 1. Factors that compose of the image of the interior landscape have been found to be the "evaluation ", "complexity". The mean value of semantic differential scale showed a significant difference according to RG. When the RG was 20~30%, "Harmony" and "stability" was strongly recognized than the other factors and the interior landscape made the interior space natural and intimate. But at the RG 40!50%, users felt "stuffy" and "too complex" by many plants, so it was not efficient the Interior Landscape. 2. The visual preference was significantly different according to RG. The mean value of the visual preference was increased as the RG was higher, it was the highest at the RG 30%. But over the RG 30%, the preference level was declined. 3. Based on these results, this study suggests that the optimum level of RG in the Interior Landscape is 30%.at the optimum level of RG in the Interior Landscape is 30%.

• Journal of Digital Convergence
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• v.14 no.5
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• pp.459-471
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• 2016

This study presents a comparative study for differences in efficacy and ingredient of white ginseng(WG), red ginseng(RG), and black ginseng(BG) using anti-oxidative activity test and anti-inflammatory activity test. In the results of cytotoxicity test for WG, RG, and BG, the survival rate of all cells was more than 95%. In the total polyphenol analysis, DPPH, ABTS radical scavenging test, and ROS production test, BG showed higher anti-oxidant activity than WG and RG. RG and WG showed higher inhibition activity of NO production and $PGE_2$ production, respectively. As results of the test for the effect on reduction of inflammatory cytokine production, WG and RG were effective on reduction of IL-$1{\beta}$ production, and BG was effective on reduction of IL-6. In the case of TNF-${\alpha}$ production, there was no difference among samples. This study could be useful basic data for the development of functional food and the fabrication of safe cosmetic.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.44 no.2
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• pp.300-307
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• 2020

Background: Emerging evidence suggests that endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) in endothelial dysfunction due to persistent inflammation is a key component and emerging concept in the pathogenesis of vascular diseases. Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3), an active compound from red ginseng, has been known to be important for vascular homeostasis. However, the effect of Rg3 on inflammation-induced EndMT has never been reported. Here, we hypothesize that Rg3 might reverse the inflammation-induced EndMT and serve as a novel therapeutic strategy for vascular diseases. Methods: EndMT was examined under an inflammatory condition mediated by the NOD1 agonist, γ-d-glutamyl-meso-diaminopimelic acid (iE-DAP), treatment in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. The expression of EndMT markers was determined by Western blot analysis, real-time polymerase chain reaction, and immunocytochemistry. The underlying mechanisms of Rg3-mediated EndMT regulation were investigated by modulating the microRNA expression. Results: The NOD1 agonist, iE-DAP, led to a fibroblast-like morphology change with a decrease in the expression of endothelial markers and an increase in the expression of the mesenchymal marker, namely EndMT. On the other hand, Rg3 markedly attenuated the iE-DAP-induced EndMT and preserved the endothelial phenotype. Mechanically, miR-139 was downregulated in cells with iE-DAP-induced EndMT and partly reversed in response to Rg3 via the regulation of NF-κB signaling, suggesting that the Rg3-miR-139-5p-NF-κB axis is a key mediator in iE-DAP-induced EndMT. Conclusion: These results suggest, for the first time, that Rg3 can be used to inhibit inflammation-induced EndMT and may be a novel therapeutic option against EndMT-associated vascular diseases.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.45 no.1
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• pp.75-85
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• 2021

Background: Invasive infections due to foodborne pathogens, including Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, are prevalent and life-threatening. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) on the adhesion, invasion, and intracellular survival of S. Typhimurium. Methods: The impacts of Rg3 on bacterial growth and host cell viability were determined using the time kill and the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide assays, respectively. Gentamicin assay and confocal microscopic examination were undertaken to determine the effects of Rg3 on the adhesive and invasive abilities of S. Typhimurium to Caco-2 and RAW 264.7 cells. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was performed to assess the expression of genes correlated with the adhesion, invasion, and virulence of S. Typhimurium. Results: Subinhibitory concentrations of Rg3 significantly reduced (p < 0.05) the adhesion, invasion, and intracellular survival of S. Typhimurium. Rg3 considerably reduced (p < 0.05) the bacterial motility as well as the release of nitrite from infected macrophages in a concentration-dependent manner. The expression of genes related to the adhesion, invasion, quorum sensing, and virulence of S. Typhimurium including cheY, hilA, OmpD, PrgK, rsgE, SdiA, and SipB was significantly reduced after Rg3 treatment. Besides, the compound downregulated rac-1 and Cdc-42 that are essential for actin remodeling and membrane ruffling, thereby facilitating Salmonella entry into host cells. This report is the first to describe the effects of Rg3 on "trigger" entry mechanism and intracellular survival S. Typhimurium. Conclusion: Rg3 could be considered as a supplement agent to prevent S. Typhimurium infection.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.47 no.2
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• pp.237-245
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• 2023

Background: Ginsenoside Rg2 (Rg2) has a variety of pharmacological activities and provides benefits during inflammation, cancer, and other diseases. However, there are no reports about the relationship between Rg2 and atherosclerosis. Methods: We used 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) to detect the cell viability of Rg2 in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The expression of inflammatory factors in HUVECs and the expression of phenotypic transformation-related marker in VSMCs were detected at mRNA levels. Western blot method was used to detect the expression of inflammation pathways and the expression of phenotypic transformation at the protein levels. The rat carotid balloon injury model was performed to explore the effect of Rg2 on inflammation and phenotypic transformation in vivo. Results: Rg2 decreased the expression of inflammatory factors induced by lipopolysaccharide in HUVECs-without affecting cell viability. These events depend on the blocking regulation of NF-κB and p-ERK signaling pathway. In VSMCs, Rg2 can inhibit the proliferation, migration, and phenotypic transformation of VSMCs induced by platelet derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB)-which may contribute to its anti-atherosclerotic role. In rats with carotid balloon injury, Rg2 can reduce intimal proliferation after injury, regulate the inflammatory pathway to reduce inflammatory response, and also suppress the phenotypic transformation of VSMCs. Conclusion: These results suggest that Rg2 can exert its anti-atherosclerotic effect at the cellular level and animal level, which provides a more sufficient basis for ginseng as a functional dietary regulator.

• Food Engineering Progress
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• v.14 no.2
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• pp.159-165
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• 2010

Red ginseng tail roots (9.8 g water/100 g sample) were puffed at 7, 8, 9, and 10 $kg_{f}/cm^{2}$ using a rotational puffing gun. Puffed red ginseng was extracted with 70% ethanol, and the concentrated extract was successively partitioned with diethyl ether, n-butanol and $H_{2}O$. Two unknown ginsenosides from puffed red ginseng were found at 63 and 65 min of retention time in HPLC chromatogram suggesting that chemical structure of some ginsenosides might be altered during the puffing process. Identification of two unknown compounds was carried out using TLC, HPLC and NMR. Two major compounds were isolated from TLC. According to TLC result, compound I was expected to be the mixture of ginsenosides Rk1 and Rg5, and compound II was expected to be a 20(S)-ginsenoside $Rg_{3}$. Three compounds were isolated from n-butanol fraction through repeated silica gel and octadecyl silica gel column chromatographies. From the result of $^{1}H$- and $^{13}C$-NMR data, the chemical structures of unknown compounds were determined as ginsenoside $Rg_{5}$ and 20(S)-ginsenoside $Rg_{3}$. Unfortunately, ginsenoside $Rk_{1}$ could not be separated from ginsenoside-$Rg_{5}$ in the compound I. It was carefully reexamined using HPLC and confirmed that the last unknown compound was ginsenoside-$Rk_{1}$.

• Korean Journal of Pharmacognosy
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• v.51 no.4
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• pp.255-263
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• 2020

Ginsenosides are considered to be the most important ingredients in ginseng. They are chemically converted by endogenous organic acids contained in ginseng and the heat applied during red ginseng processing. During this procedure, various converted ginsenosides are produced through hydrolysis of substitute sugars of ginsenosides and forming double bonds through dehydration in the dammarane skeleton. In order to study the conversion mechanism of protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides during the heat treatment process of ginseng, we purified the three final converted ginsenosides by heating fresh ginseng for a long time. The three isolated ginsenosides were identified as 25(OH)-ginsenoside Rg5, 25(OH)-ginsenoside Rz1 and 25(OH)-ginsenoside Rg3 through NMR spectrum analysis. As a result of quantification of ginseng heated at 100 ℃ for 0 to 6 days by HPLC/UV and TLC methods, the content of 25(OH)-ginsenosides tended to increase in proportion to the time exposed to heat. In particular, the content of 25(OH)-ginsenosid Rg5 was confirmed to be noticeably increased.

• Proceedings of the Ginseng society Conference
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• 1984.09a
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• pp.169-183
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• 1984

인삼의 주된 사포닌으로서 Rg,과 Rb,을 흰쥐에 투여하였을 경우에 이들 물질이 흰쥐의 장기에 흡수 또는 분포되는 상태와 배설에 대하여 연구하였다. 진세노사이드 $Rg_{1}$은 경구 투여량의 약 $1.9{\%}$가 소화관의 상부에서 흡수되었으며, 투여한지 30분 후에 최고 혈중 농도에 이르렀고 조직에서는 1.5시간 걸렸다. 그러나 뇌에서는 확인되지 않았으며 뇨와 당즙에는 2 : 5의 비로 배설되었다. $Rb_{1}$을 100mg/kg 경구투여한 결과, 소화관에서는 거의 흡수가 되지 않았으며, 한편 정맥주사(5mg/kg)의 경우는 혈중 $Rb_{1}$의 농도가 지수적으로 감소하였으며, B-phase의 반감기는 14.5시간이었다. 정맥주사후 혈청과 조직에 장시간 잔존은 활성을 나탄내는 혈청단백과의 결합과 관련이 있는 것으로 사료되며 시간에 따라 뇨로 배설되나 담즙에서는 확인되지 않았다. $Rg_{1}$과 $Rb_{1}$을 경구투여한 후 TLC와 $^{13}C$-NMR을 이용하여 위와 대장에서의 분해 상태를 연구한 결과 위에서 $Rg_{1}$의 일부가 분해, 6종류의 분해 산물이 r-everse phase TLC상에서 관찰되었고 이들 분해 산물은 약산성 (0.1N HCl, $37^{\circ}C$) 조건하에서 $Rg_{1}$의 가수분해산물과 동일하였다. 한편, $Rb_{1}$ 경구투여후 위장에서 얻은 시료중에서 미확인 분해산물이 관찰되었으며, 이 분해산물은 약산성 조건하에서 $Rb_{1}$의 가수분해산물과는 상이하다는 사실을 확인하였다. 대장에서, $Rg_{1}$은 미생물 tetracycline-susceptible bacteria와 tetracycline-resist bacteria에 의해 $Rb_{1}$과 $F_{1}$으로 분해되었으며, $Rb_{1}$은 장내의 효소와 tetracycline-resistantant bacteria에 의해 Rd와 2 종류의 미확인 물질로 분해되었다.