• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.21 no.6
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• pp.558-573
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• 2016

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the main sources of dietary sodium and potassium intake in Koreans by gender, age and regions. Methods: We used the data from 2010-2012 KNHANES. A total of 20,387 subjects aged 8 years and older were included. Intakes were compared by gender, age (8-18, 19-49 and >50 years) and geographical regions in Korea. Dishes were classified into 28 dish groups based on cooking methods. Statistical analysis was performed by using the SAS 9.3 and SUDAAN 11.0.1 software. Results: The mean sodium intake of Koreans was $4866.5{\pm}35.9mg/day$, which was 2.4 times higher than the adequate intake (AI) of sodium for Koreans. We found that daily sodium intakes were significantly different by age, gender and regions. Men and aged over 50 years had significantly higher sodium intake than women and other age groups. The mean potassium intake in Koreans was $3002.2{\pm}19.4mg/day$ and daily potassium intakes were significantly different by age, gender and regions. Women and age 50 years and over had significantly higher potassium intakes than men and other age groups. The average Na/K ratio was $2.89{\pm}0.01$ and was highest in men and in the age group of 19-49 years. The major sources of dietary sodium were soup and stew, followed by Kimchi, noodles and dumpling, pickled vegetables and seasonings, which represented 63.1 % of total sodium intakes. Soup and stew or Kimchi were the primary sources of dietary sodium intake. The major sources of dietary potassium were cooked rice, followed by soup and stew, Kimchi, fruits and beverages. Conclusions: Sodium and potassium intakes and the major sources of those were significantly different by gender, age groups and regions. Therefore, different approaches based on gender, age and regions are needed to decrease sodium intake and increase potassium intake.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.15 no.2
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• pp.180-190
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• 2010

This study was conducted to investigate the differences in food habits, eating behaviors and food frequency by gender and regions in upper grade elementary school children in Korea. Subjects of this study were 1,211 children, 645 boys and 566 girls, attending 6 elementary schools (4th, 5th and 6th graders). 389 children lived in Seoul and 822 children lived in other regions. Mean height, weight and BMI of subjects were 142.4 cm, 38.7 kg and $18.8\;kg/m^2$ respectively. 70.5% of the subjects had breakfast every day and 12.4% of the subjects skipped breakfast. There were significant differences between boys and girls in causes of skipping breakfast, overeating, meal volume, and duration of meals. Girls showed more desirable eating behavior than boys (p < 0.001). Scores for specific eating behaviors such as unbalanced diet and intake of meats and vegetables were better in girls (p < 0.001), and boys ate meals faster than girls (p > 0.001). There were significant differences between Seoul and other regions in eating behavior. Eating behavior scores of children in other regions were higher than in Seoul (p < 0.01). Children in Seoul had a higher frequency of watching television with meals. Frequency of fruits (p < 0.001), milk products (p < 0.01), and meats (p < 0.05) of children in Seoul were higher than other regions. Otherwise the frequency of simple sugar products of children in other regions was higher than Seoul (p < 0.001). Frequency of green vegetables was higher for girls than boys, and frequency of fast foods was higher for boys than girls. These results showed that in nutrition education programs designed to improve the nutritional health of elementary school children, we need to focus more on differences in the children's food habits and eating behaviors by gender and regions. In consideration of these differences, such educational programs need to have a different emphasis for each gender and regions to serve its specific needs.

• The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business
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• v.8 no.7
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• pp.671-679
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• 2021

House ownership is considered as one of the important pre-conditions for marriage in China. Given that gender imbalance is a prominent issue in the country, competition for marriage partners might motivate males to look for a house and probably bigger and more expensive house. This is believed to have caused house price hikes in recent years. This study aims to investigate the impact of gender imbalance on house prices using data from 30 provinces in China for the 2000-2017 period. The results based on the generalized method of moments (GMM) estimations show that house price is strongly influenced by gender imbalance. However, there is no evidence to support differential effects across eastern and mid-western regions. One potential reason is that pre-marriage house ownership has become a common culture for the whole community and therefore it does not vary significantly across regions. There are several important policy implications. Firstly, the issues should be addressed by the policymakers at national level and not regional level. Secondly, the government should intervene to bring back gender ratio to its normal level. Finally, the government should limit the number of houses people can buy and increase the supply of houses in the market.

• The Korean Journal of Community Living Science
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• v.16 no.1
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• pp.37-47
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• 2005

Education has been emphasized as one of tools of realizing social equality, which has its base on the ideology of equal education opportunity. The Opportunity level of adult education is important in the meaning of social equality. but these days It is being inequality. so The objectives of this study were 1) measuring the opportunity level of adult education in Korea, 2) analysing the difference adult education level by gender, regions, 3) making out the gap of the its level by social educational agencies, 4) to suggest the way to improve the opportunity level of adults educations between adults by gender, regions. The followings are the results from the study: Adult education participation level were lower. Adult education participation level per adult education type showed higher participation at private institutes, lower at cultural center of community and school's human and material resources are not properly utilized in adult educational activities. By adult education participation level per gender and location, women have a higher participation level then men, and urban areas have a higher participation level then rural areas. In case of location, environment variables is most explanatory in adult education participation level. To strive for methods to activate school-oriented adult education activities and to develop political solution to ease the resources gaps for adult education investment among regions in order not to deepen environment gaps of adult education between urban and rural areas. For adult education activation, institution and bodies in charge of adult education should expand and discover hardware and develop and distribute software. Also, adult education specialists who operate and manage these hardware and sofeware efficiently should be recruited.

• Korean Journal of Human Ecology
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• v.17 no.3
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• pp.425-437
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• 2008

The global trend for women's policy has selected gender mainstreaming to change unequal gender relation. The gender mainstreaming means that the gender perspective is integrated into all policy processes to accomplish gender equality. In other words, 'gender' should be considered as a basic factor such as classes, regions, and races when a policy is established and implemented. The government has implemented various gender mainstreaming policies to integrate gender perspectives. This study is to examine officials' perception about various gender mainstreaming policies. The survey was conducted for Daejeon city officials (699 men and 457 women). Officials' perception is very important, because it is an important means used as a tool in shaping and implementing policies. Variables such as gender, age, position, length of service, work place, etc. were chosen and the differences between variables were analyzed. The analysis showed that gender mainstreaming policies were perceived as ones only for women. Therefore, various education programs according to gender, age, position and length of service should be developed to improve the effectiveness of gender mainstreaming policies. In addition, education programs for officials to improve gender sensitiveness should be developed and expanded.

• The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business
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• v.6 no.2
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• pp.231-238
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• 2019

This study aims is to analyze of existing concepts of gender stereotypes and gender differences in wages, defining of gender pay gap determinants, and to evaluate the level of discrimination against women in Kazakhstan. This paper begins by reviewing trends in gender stereotypes and gender segregation during the past several decades. In this research, authors propose the methodological tools for presenting a standard form of evaluation of gender pay gap. The developed methodological tools will allow providing authentic and formal analysis on gender pay gap and identifying the main determinants of gender pay differences. Further, the obtained results showed the distribution of wage gap in Kazakhstan's regions and the Duncan's dissimilation index allows us to trace the dynamics of changes in the professional structure between men and women. According to the results, gender pay gap is narrowing with the reduction of the job level and discrimination is related to differences in human capital and education. Wages in the industrial sector are higher for men than for women, because men's professions are characterized by severe and unhealthy working conditions. In addition, employers prefer male managers, but if they take woman managers, they give them salary 3 times less.

• Korean Journal of Legislative Studies
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• v.27 no.1
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• pp.5-40
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• 2021

This study attempts to analyze gender gaps in voter turnout for three different types of elections held since 2017 at the aggregate level using the Central Election Management Commission's turnout data, paying attention to the importance of women's voting. The findings are as follows. First, modern gender gaps in voter turnout at the aggregate level are confirmed in most regions regardless of election types. Second, the gender gap in turnout varies with age. The gender difference is verified in the "widowhood effect," where turnout decreases in the oldest-old. In the new voter group, modern gender gaps appear in most regions. The reversed gender difference in turnout in the late 20s, which reflects the Korean society's characteristics, is confirmed in all elections. Third, it is unclear whether the reverse gender gap in turnout becomes more pronounced in urbanized districts. As urbanization progressed, modern gender differences in voter turnout across age groups are observed at the population-based size level. Paradoxically, the modern gender gap tends to be weak and turns into the traditional gender gap in younger age groups (in the late thirties) in Gangnam-gu and Seocho-gu, the most modernized districts in Seoul. These results show that the modern gender gap in turnout is now a common phenomenon and continues to be strengthened by newly recruited voters in Korea. Thus we should pay more attention to female voters' political behavior and a new approach beyond the developmental theory to understand the causal mechanism to generate the modern gender gap in voter turnout.

• Health Policy and Management
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• v.25 no.4
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• pp.285-294
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• 2015

Background: Suicide is one of important health problems in Korea. Previous studies showed factors associated with suicide in individual levels. However, suicide was influenced by society that individuals belong to, so it was required to analyze suicide in local levels. The purpose of this study was to analyze the regional disparities of suicide mortality by gender and the association between local characteristics and suicide mortality. Methods: This study included 229 city county district administrative districts in Korea. Age- and sex-standardized suicide mortality and age-standardized suicide mortality (male/female) were used as dependent variables. City county district types, socio-demographics (number of divorces per 1,000 population, number of marriages per 1,000 population, and single households), financial variable (financial independence), welfare variable (welfare budget), and health behavior/status (perceived health status scores and EuroQol-5 dimension [EQ-5D]) were used to represent the local characteristics. We used hot-spot analysis to identify the spatial patterns of suicide mortality and negative binomial regression analysis to examine factors affecting suicide mortality. Results: There were differences in distribution of suicide mortality and hot-spot regions of suicide mortality by gender. Negative binomial regression analysis provided that city county district types (city), number of divorces per 1,000 population, financial independence, and EQ-5D had significant influences on the age- and sex-standardized suicide mortality per 100,000. Factor influencing suicide mortality was the number of divorces per 1,000 population in both male and female. Conclusion: Study results provided evidences that suicide mortality among regions was differed by gender. Health policy makers will need to consider gender and local characteristics when making policies for suicides.

• Research in Mathematical Education
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• v.17 no.3
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• pp.153-167
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• 2013

Mathematics has been stereotyped as a male-dominated subject, and there is considerable evidence to support this belief. There has been much research in the past three decades on gender-related differences in elementrny and secondrny school mathematics. The research found that teachers possess different beliefs about male and female students that influence their teaching behaviour, which then directly or indirectly impact their students' behaviours, beliefs, and achievements in mathematics. Based on data collected from teacher questionnaire surveys in the Chinese Mainland and Hong Kong, this study examines teachers' beliefs about the achievements of boys and girls in mathematics. The study also compares the findings in the two regions surveyed. Results showed that teachers gave more attention to boys than girls, regardless of the teacher's gender. Not only are teachers more likely to recall more boys than girls, but also more boys than girls with average academic standards.

• The Mathematical Education
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• v.55 no.1
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• pp.129-145
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• 2016

The purpose of this study was to research and compare teachers' preferences for 'Great Math Class' by region and gender. The research was conducted on 261 high school math teachers by using non-probability sampling. As the results of the study, regional preference had no statistically significant difference in all four factors of 'Great Math Class' while gender preference had statistically significant difference only in the factor of teaching (methods) and learning methods. Both region and gender had statistically significant positive (+) relationship with preference for all four factors. This implies that it is necessary to consider socio-cultural factors rather than teachers' perception on class for regional differences in academic achievements in mathematics.