• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
• /
• v.87 no.3
• /
• pp.341-346
• /
• 1998

The effects of CaO, $CaO+MgSO_4$, and $CaO+MgSO_4$+compound fertilizers(NPK) on soil chemical properties of acidified forest soils were studied in Quercus spp. and Pinus rigida stands in Mt. Namsan and Mt. Surak in urban areas, and Kwangnung in a mountain area. The soil samples were collected in November 1995 after every year fertilization from November 1991 through April 1995. The fertilizations affected soil chemical properties. Soil pH increased after fertilizations compared with control. However, the effect was different between the stand types and the areas. Organic matter and total nitrogen content were not changed, while exchangable cations such as calcium and magnesium increased after fertilizations. However, these ration concentrations after fertilizer treatments were lower in P. rigida than in Quercus spp. stands. These rations also showed increased leaching characteristics more in the urban area than in the mountain area.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
• /
• v.31 no.4
• /
• pp.95-112
• /
• 2013

Jangchungdan Park is now perceived as a mere park at the foot of Namsan mountain, but originally it was created to commemorate soldiers of Korean Empire on a site which name was Namsoyeong(南小營) during Joseon Dynasty. During the period of Japanese colonial rule, it was transformed into a park due to the rapidly changing circumstances, so the components expressing the validity of the colonial rule were introduced into the park. This paper examines the time sequential changes of Jangchungdan Park during the period of Japanese colonial rule, and the conclusions can be summarized as given below. Firstly, the park originally was a space to commemorate the soldiers who fought for the Korean Empire. It was built on formerly restricted area at the foot of Namsan Mountain in 1900, and it was arranged putting the ceremonial shrine Dansa (壇祠) as a central building and the annexes in the surroundings of it. The memorial ceremonies were held regularly in spring and autumn until 1909. Secondly, it became a city park for citizens of Gyeongseong-bu(the name of Seoul under the Japanese colonial rule). The authorities of Gyeongseong-bu reorganized Jangchungdan as a park in 1919, prohibited the performance of memorial ceremonies, and the existing buildings except the ceremonial shrine Dansa began to be used as park management facilities. Resting areas and amenities were supplemented for the usage of people from various backgrounds, and the large scale planting of cherry trees made the park a famous place to enjoy cherry-blossoms and other flowers in spring. Thirdly, it was reconstructed as a space to honor the influential personalities of Japanese colonial system. In 1932, Bankmun temple (博文寺) to commemorate Ito Hirobumi was constructed at a location that made it possible for a number of people to overlook Jangchungdan area. During that time, the buildings of traditional Joseon architecture were removed and reconstructed to serve as annexes to Bankmun temple. Due to the strategy to make Jangchungdan park a tourist attraction, Bankmun temple was included into the Gyeongseong sightseeing course, since the wide panorama of Jangchungdan Park and the whole city of Gyeongseong was opening from the temple. Various different components were introduced into Jangchungdan Park due to the rapidly changing circumstances; therefore the nature of the park was either altered or reproduced. Hopefully, the park rearrangement works will be executed paying respects to the memories of the past hereafter.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
• /
• v.52 no.2
• /
• pp.196-219
• /
• 2019

According to the Samguk Yusa, the nine-story wooden pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple was built by a Baekje artisan named Abiji in 645. Until the temple was burnt down completely during the Mongol invasion of Korea in 1238, it was the greatest symbol of the spiritual culture of the Korean people at that time and played an important role in the development of Buddhist thought in the country for about 700 years. At present, the only remaining features of Hwangnyongsa Temple, which is now in ruins, are the pagoda's stylobate and several foundation stones. In the past, many researchers made diverse inferences concerning the restoration of the original structure and the overall architecture of the wooden pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple, based on written records and excavation data. However, this information, together with the remaining external structure of the pagoda site and the assumption that it was a simple wooden structure, actually suggest that it was a rectangular-shaped nine-story pagoda. It is assumed that such ideas were suggested at a time when there was a lack of relevant data and limited knowledge on the subject, as well as insufficient information about the technical lineage of the wooden pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple; therefore, these ideas should be revised in respect of the discovery of new data and an improved level of awareness about the structural features of large ancient Buddhist pagodas. This study focused on the necessity of raising awareness of the lineage and structure of the wooden pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple and gaining a broader understanding of the structural system of ancient Buddhist pagodas in East Asia. The study is based on a reanalysis of data about the site of the wooden pagoda obtained through research on the restoration of Hwangnyongsa Temple, which has been ongoing since 2005. It is estimated that the wooden pagoda underwent at least two large-scale repairs between the Unified Silla and Goryeo periods, during which the size of the stylobate and the floor plan were changed and, accordingly, the upper structure was modified to a significant degree. Judging by the features discovered during excavation and investigation, traces relating to the nine-story wooden pagoda built during the Three Kingdoms Period include the earth on which the stylobate was built and the central pillar's supporting stone, which had been reinstalled using the rammed earth technique, as well as other foundation stones and stylobate stone materials that most probably date back to the ninth century or earlier. It seems that the foundation stones and stylobate stone materials were new when the reliquaries were enshrined again in the pagoda after the Unified Silla period, so the first story and upper structure would have been of a markedly different size to those of the original wooden pagoda. In addition, during the Goryeo period, these foundation stones were rearranged, and the cover stone was newly installed; therefore, the pagoda would seem to have undergone significant changes in size and structure compared to previous periods. Consequently, the actual structure of the original wooden pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple should be understood in terms of the changes in large Buddhist pagodas built in East Asia at that time, and the technical lineage should start with the large Buddhist pagodas of the Baekje dynasty, which were influenced by the Northern dynasty of China. Furthermore, based on the archeological data obtained from the analysis of the images of the nine-story rock-carved pagoda depicted on the Rock-carved Buddhas in Tapgok Valley at Namsan Mountain in Gyeongju, and the gilt-bronze rail fragments excavated from the lecture hall at the site of Hwangnyongsa Temple, the wooden pagoda would appear to have originally been an octagonal nine-story pagoda with a dual structure, rather than a simple rectangular wooden structure.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
• /
• v.34 no.3
• /
• pp.1-17
• /
• 2016

The main aim of this study is to provide an overview of the characteristics the Oungak (五雲閣) area on the north of rear garden of Gyeongbokgung Palace which was constructed during the time of king Kojong. This study also consider the aspect of functional elements of Ocryucheon (玉流川) located in Changdeokgung Palace and how the Oungak area was used as a substitute for the Ocryucheon. The Oungak area is the private space of the king. It was built in a natural setting which used existing environment including spring water and the rock carved with inscriptions 'Cheonha-Jaeil-Bokji (天下第一福地). King Kojong tried to replace Ocryucheon with Oungak area which had played a important role of relaxation and leisure for royal family at the Ocryucheon to reconstructed Gyeongbokgung Palace. Despite being away from each other, Oungak area seems quite similar to Ocryucheon area. Oungak area and Ocryucheon have a common conditions of a location and structure of the building. Both constructed on the northernmost part of rear garden, composition of buildings and the design of waterway estimated to function as Curve-Stream Banquet. Oungak area was consisted of Ocryeonjeong (玉蓮亭) Pavilion, Oungak Building, Byeokhwasil (碧華室) Building and Cheonha-Jaeil-Bokji-Cheon (天下第一福地泉) Spring and Streams. Except Byeokhwasil Building, spatial compositions of Oungak area showed pattern that were similar to Ocryucheon area. The area was developed, moreover, to unconventional space that depended on the conditions of topography, slope, water system. First, The Ocryeonjeong Pavilion constructed to view the landscape of Seoul to Namsan Mountain. Second, the peculiar form of Cheonha-Jaeil-Bokji-Cheon Streams is estimated the shape imitated from Curve-Stream Banquet on Ocryuchon. Third, Oungak Building was constructed like a habitable house with Nongsanjeong Building in Ocryucheon. The Oungak area was constructed to improve Gyeongbokgung Palace, Consequently, the Oungak area specially characteristic of Joseon palaces's rear garden.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
• /
• v.29 no.3
• /
• pp.12-21
• /
• 2011

We investigated the location and surveillance system of fortress using inter-visibility analysis between fortress and the capital of the Silla Dynasty. The digital terrain model(DTM) was generated with $10{\times}10m$ grid in Arcview 3.2. Then three fortresses lines(Myeonghwal-sanseong, Namsan-shinseong, Seohyeong-sanseong) were superimposed on the DTM. 4 results of this study were drew out from the cumulative visibility analysis. First, the most of fortress lines which showed the high visible frequency from the Sila-Capital(538 viewpoints) have a good aspect toward the capital. It means that 3 fortresses secured the visibility to the capital. Second, the cumulative visibility analysis from 3 fortresses generated evenly distributed visible frequency across the inside of fortress. It shows that the inner area of fortress is more advantageous to command during the war. On the contrary, a number of invisible(vulnerable) regions which is scattered on the outside were supplemented by adjacent fortress. Third, the north area of the Sila-captial showed the highest visible frequency generated by sum up the visibility from 3 fortresses. The northern captial is placed within 4km distance easy to support at the Myeonghwal and Seohyeong-sanseong. We proved that the Sila-capital had organized a solid surveillance system by 3 fortresses. Fourth, we could infer the practical process of fortress layout from comparing a cumulative visibility map. For the secure of visibility and defense systems, the fortress line would form a rising shape to the peak. This practical location theory can replace the vague common location theory that the fortress would constructed on two thirds of mountain height. It will be an empirical method in the ancient remains research.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
• /
• v.54 no.4
• /
• pp.36-59
• /
• 2021

This study infers the origin and production period of the , which is in the Onyang folk museum, through analysis and interpretation of the Haeju Palgyeong and exploration of the landscapes and traditions contained in the painting. The first collection of landscapes to Haeju was identified as Haeju Palgyeong by Ku Sa-meng (1531-1604). Yoo Man-ju, writing in 1782, referred to it as Go-palgyeong in 『Heumyeong』 while Haeju Palgyeong was defined as Geum-palgyeong (今八景), which is the Haeju Palgyeong in the earliest period confirmed by literature. is 'Boating on the Nam river (南江泛舟)', 'Lotus viewing at Buyongdang (芙蓉賞蓮)', 'Foot washing at Gwangseokcheon (廣石濯足)', 'Seokbyul at Haeunkyo (泣川送客)', 'Fishing at Haeunjeong (東亭釣魚)' and 'Sea view at Namsan( 南山望海)', and the final two contain a picture that contains 'Viewing the moon at Yeonghaeru (瀛海玩月)' and 'Writing contest and Archery at Baeklimjeong (栢林觀德)' The Suyang Chaemi(首陽採薇), Shingwang-jeoljeol (神光霽雪), and Jiseong falls (池城瀑布) of Gopalgyeong, which were excluded from Haeju Palgyeong, are all landscapes unfolding as a grand site of Suyangsan Mountain. is a result of the reorganization of Seunggyeong centered on Eupchi (邑治), away from the Suyangsan area. It has emerged as a seunggyeong of Haeju. The elaborateness of trying to contain the detailed prizes representing Haeju, such as the specialty sake of Haeju, is revealed. Most of the landscapes depicted in are historic and outstanding spots in Haemok, but the scenes of life related to daily life are properly arranged. In addition, Foot washing (濯足), Fishing(釣魚), Doing laundry (漂母), Lotus viewing (賞蓮), Sending guests (送客), Drinking (飮酒), sea viewing (望海), Moon viewing (玩月), Archery (射藝), Poetry (詩作), Drinking tea (飮茶), and Dancing (歌舞) are of various styles. Compared with the Gopalgyeongs, Haeju Palgyeong did not take into account the distribution of landscapes in the four seasons, and the small-sized view was also broken. When considering the time of the construction of Haeunjeong and the deterioration of Yeonghhoeru, it is believed that was produced in the early- to mid-18th century. is considered to be a painting that contributed to strengthening the sense of intimacy with the local people and promoting the pride of Haeju by showing the representative scenery of Haeju, such as scenic spots and customs, away from the ideal utopia.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
• /
• v.43 no.4
• /
• pp.56-77
• /
• 2010

The tortoise pedestal for the memorial monument of Choe Jin-rip(an army officer in the mid-Joseon Period) in Ijo-ri, Naenam-myeon, Gyeongju is known to have been made in 1740. As such, it was originally understood to be a Joseon imitation of a tortoise pedestal made in the Unified Silla Period. The style of the Ijori Tortoise Pedestal differs from other tortoise pedestals dating back to the same period, and bears no resemblance to the Unified Silla pedestals of which it is a copy. Mullu ilgi, a record of the production of the pedestal, explains that the monument was made before the pedestal. Traces show that the two sides of the bottom of the monument were cut off so that it would fit into the smaller space made on the pedestal. It is scarcely conceivable that they made the pedestal and the platform without considering the bottom size of the monument. The record only states that the monument was made at a temple site named Baegundae, without explaining the details of the production process. This leaves some doubt as to whether its production was undertaken systematically. The cloud patterns engraved on this pedestal look similar to the temporal seriation found on the Tortoise Pedestal of the Royal Tomb of King Muyeol and the Seoangni Tortoise Pedestal of Gyeongju. The lotus pattern decorating the square pedestal on the back of the tortoise is one of a number of patterns that were widely used on roof-tiles in the 8th century, the heyday of the Unified Silla Kingdom. The Ijori Tortoise Pedestal, which represents a tortoise moving forward, displays a liveliness the like of which is rarely found in its cousins remaining in Gyeongju. The layout of the patterns in a queue on the tortoise-shell looks much better schematized than those made at an earlier date. It also looks like a more developed form, with the use of space taken into account. Such factors as the style of the patterns, the incongruity between the monument and its pedestal, and what is stated in the historical record indicate that the Ijori Tortoise Pedestal of Gyeongju was made in the mid-8th century(i.e. during the Unified Silla Period), rather than in the Joseon Period(i.e. the 18th century), as an imitation of earlier ones, including changes in the style unique to the Silla Period.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
• /
• v.40 no.1
• /
• pp.1-14
• /
• 2022

This study focused on examining the location characteristics of Mujang-Eupchi(茂長邑治), a traditional city of Joseon Dynasty, and shedding light on its prototype landscape. The findings were summarized as follows: Mujang-Eupchi showed a Confucian space system with Munmyo(文廟) within Hyanggyo(鄕校) in the east, Sajikdan(社稷壇) in the west, Seonghwangsa(城隍祠) in the fortress and Yeodan(厲壇) and Seonghwangdan(城隍壇) in Jinsan(鎭山) in the north around the Mujang-Eupseong(茂長邑城), an old fortress, built in the 17th year of King Taejong(1417). It seemed that Seonghwangdan located in Jinsan maintained a coexistence system with Seonghwangsa(城隍祠) within the Eupseong. A Pungsu(風水) stream in a V-shape ran before the southern gate of Eupseong, forming a Sugu(水口) in front of Namsan(南山) that was an Ansan(案山). They dug a southern pond called Hongmunje(紅門堤) to protect the vitality of the village and built Gwanpungjeong(觀豊亭). In the 19th century, Hongmunje and Gwanpungjeong were renamed into Muheungje(茂興堤) and Muheungdang(茂興堂), respectively. Eupsu(邑藪) were planted in front of the southern pond including Wondo(圓島), and Songdeokbi(頌德碑), Dangsanmok(堂山木), and Dangsanseok(堂山石) served as a Sugumagi(水口막이) and protected the entrance of Eupchi. After the Liberation, the southern pond was buried in 1955, and a market was formed at the site, which resulted in the disappearance of its prototype. The study also investigated the name and location of Chilgeori(七거리) in the village as it was lost following the unification of Bu(府), Gun(郡), and Myeon(面) titles in 1914 during the Japanese colonial period. Chilgeori Dangsan was based on Yin and Yang theory and became the subject of the organization mainly composed of Grandfather Dangsan menhir and Grandmother Dangsan tree. Chilgeori Dangsan was a religious place of the community to guard the village, serving as seven gateways to control access at the village boundary and it had a locational feature of protecting the inner mountain ranges of Eupchi.