• Korean Journal of Plant Taxonomy
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• v.48 no.3
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• pp.218-229
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• 2018

Myanmar's plant diversity is expected to be very high given the wide variety of climates and the diverse vegetation and geographical features of the country. Since the publication of Kress et al.'s plant checklist in 2003, new and unrecorded species have been constantly reported by various botanists, but much of Myanmar's flora requires more intensive examinations. We conducted joint floristic surveys of several Ywangan areas, including the Panlaung-Pyadalin Cave Wildlife Sanctuary in southern Shan State of Myanmar. The initial identification of seed plant specimens collected from three short floristic expeditions revealed that 23 species were newly recorded species in Myanmar. More than half of these were found to be geographically notable species, which are known to be endemic to neighboring countries such as China (4 spp.), Thailand (6 spp.), and India (2 spp.). A considerable number of these unrecorded species are distributed in the limestone areas of neighboring countries, reflecting the geological characteristics of the survey area. The results of this study reemphasize the need for intensive and continuous research on the flora of Myanmar for a more comprehensive understanding of the distribution patterns of flowering plants in Southeast Asia.

• Journal of Contemporary Eastern Asia
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• v.20 no.2
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• pp.210-236
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• 2021

China's Belt and Road Initiative infrastructure connectivity and other projects are presented in much of the discourse as a grand strategy to trap developing nations in debt, to exert asymmetric power and construct a new world economic order. The asymmetric relationship between China and Myanmar might therefore be expected to generate a range of political risks for stakeholders. Myanmar itself presents a "perfect storm" of problems, with dysfunctional governance, civil conflict, under-development and growing economic dependence on China. The Kyaukphyu port project and associated Special Economic Zone in Myanmar's troubled Rakhine state is investigated as a case study of risks on the Belt and Road. While worst case fears China might seize military control of the port appear unlikely, at least in current conditions, empirical observation indicates the complexity on the ground generates an array of other risks - as well as opportunities, should conditions allow. Further, despite challenges and constrained capacity, Myanmar governments have demonstrated agency, including by re-negotiating control and costs of the Kyaukphyu project. The case underlines that conditions are more complicated than simply China's asymmetric power. A sceptical approach is taken to normative discourses in order to build inductive understanding of how stakeholders and local experts perceive dynamics underway. A political risk approach is deployed to develop a framework to identify, analyse and assess risks for actors in relation to the Kyaukphyu project. The research findings are presented on an interim basis, given current constraints on field interviews due to the current crisis.

• Journal of Contemporary Eastern Asia
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• v.20 no.2
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• pp.157-173
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• 2021

In the transition to a multipolar international system, the literature has focused on great power competition while little attention has been given to the strategic possibilities of smaller states. However, as a result of globalization, states are so closely interconnected that the primary strategies of even major powers are not to achieve zero-sum solutions but to create asymmetric dependency through which they can influence the behavior of other states and non-state actors. States are assisted in this effort by a variety of tools, including setting up institutions, direct economic influence and through building different forms of infrastructure connectivity networks. By discussing asymmetric dependency situations from the perspective of the great powers, the literature presents smaller states primarily as passive actors, paralyzed by their dependence on great powers. Our paper argues that interdependence allows smaller states to effectively influence larger actors and examines strategies from which smaller states can choose in order to influence the behavior of larger states. Despite an extremely asymmetric relationship between Myanmar and China, actors in Myanmar have sought to influence China's Myanmar policy. We examine a case study of the Myitsone Dam, including Myanmar's strategic aims, chosen strategy and limitations in maneuvering space. Semi-structured interviews with local decision-makers and stakeholders are conducted in order to portray the full picture. Our study concludes that further research on the influencing strategies of small states in response to asymmetric dependence can contribute to a better understanding of the interdependence of states.

• Korean Journal of Plant Taxonomy
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• v.49 no.1
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• pp.8-12
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• 2019

Although Myanmar is a biodiversity hotspot, little is known about its flora, particularly lycophytes and ferns, due to a lack of intensive inventories. In 2017, work on a total of 299 species of lycophytes and ferns found throughout the country, including 84 species from Natma Taung National Park in the Chin State, was published. However, a comparison of the flora of Myanmar with those of adjacent countries suggests that many more species are likely also to be distributed in this country. In the present study, two field surveys conducted in Natma Taung National Park during 2015 to make a checklist of lycophytes and ferns resulted in the discovery of three fern species not previously recorded in the flora of Myanmar. All occur in other countries in Southeast Asia as well as in other tropical areas. These species are Pteris bella (Pteridaceae), Dryopteris lepidopoda (Dryopteridaceae), and Loxogramme duclouxii (Polypodiaceae). The results will provide valuable information for the Myanmar fern checklist that is currently being prepared.

• Korean Journal of Plant Taxonomy
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• v.49 no.1
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• pp.96-99
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• 2019

The species diversity of Orchidaceae is believed to be extremely high in Myanmar. Like in other plant groups, little basic inventory work has been done thus far. During floristic surveys conducted in Popa Mountain Park (Mandalay Region), Natma Taung National Park (Chin State), and in the Ywangan area (southwestern Shan State), we encountered two interesting orchid species which were determined to be new generic records in the flora of Myanmar. Thuniopsis cleistogama was previously considered endemic to Yunnan Province (China) and was only known from the type locality. However, here the species is newly reported from two localities in central and western Myanmar. Disperis neilgherrensis is known from several widely scattered localities in tropical and subtropical Asia. This tiny orchid species was discovered in the Ywangan area in the southwestern area of the Shan State of Myanmar. These two species will be valuable additions to the updated checklist of the orchids of Myanmar.

• International Area Studies Review
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• v.20 no.4
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• pp.23-36
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• 2016

This studies the relationship between ODA and export performance of donor countries in Myanmar. This study analyzes 19 donor countries from 2002 to 2014 by using gravity model. The results show that ODA improves the export performance of donor countries in Myanmar in the period. The larger the amount of ODA, the larger the exports in Myanmar. And the rate of increase of ODA is also important in determining the export performance. These imply that ODA increases donor's export directly as well as indirectly by improving the relationship between donors and receivers. These results are important for Korea that is increasing ODA into Myanmar. Korea should search for a mode of ODA supporting as well as the amount of ODA.

• SUVANNABHUMI
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• v.5 no.2
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• pp.67-80
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• 2013

A widely shared view identifies civil society with the set of nonprofit or nongovernmental organizations. This tradition reflects a long history of social theory viewed in institutional terms. Myanmar society has developed, mainly based on Buddhist culture and tradition. Buddhist practice necessitates public validation within an economy of merit in which moral action earns future rewards. Myanmar private voluntary associations have, since ancient times, played a vital role in achieving social purposes. Buddhist monasteries were the main education institutions in Myanmar. Until today, monastic schools, or monastic education centers as they are often called, have been the most important civil-society institutions bridging the accessibility gap in the state-run education system in government-controlled areas. Apart from social or community based that serve for public health in Myanmar there has been a number of religious organizations serving for the same. Moreover there appeared an association to very differently help those who need much urgent help. Since military coup in 1962, however, successive regimes have sought to stamp out civil society and permit only state-controlled organizations. Civil society re-emerged during the nation-wide pro-democracy demonstrations in 1988. After 1988 civil societies are allowed as like a political party to form. Now a day some civil societies have worked to start small-scale projects addressing local problems, but they must stay clear of politics.

• International Area Studies Review
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• v.21 no.4
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• pp.125-139
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• 2017

This study analyzes the determinants and patterns of regional migration in Myanmar. Population migration is affected by various factors such as economic and social factors as well as regional characteristics. It is affected by factors such as income, employment and social overhead capital. Therefore, this study attempts to analyze the following two research problems. First, I would like to analyze whether the reform and opening of Myanmar is causing the migration of rural to urban population. Myanmar is also trying to verify the pattern of population migration experienced by other developing countries. Second, we analyze the impact of social overhead capital on population migration in Myanmar. We analyze the impact of basic infrastructure such as roads, electricity and water on population movements. This will give implications for investment policy decision of social overhead capital for balanced regional development. First, the pattern of population migration in Myanmar is shifting from rural to urban areas, as other developing countries have experienced. Myanmar's urban areas of Yangon and Mandalay have been analyzed as having migration. Second, the expansion of social overhead capital was found to have an impact. Social overhead capital such as roads and educational environments were analyzed to have the capacity to inhale the population. Especially, the educational environment of the region has a great effect on population migration. It is analyzed that education reform is an important policy issue for the balanced regional development of Myanmar. Fourth, employment opportunities were analyzed to have the greatest impact on Myanmar population movements. In the early stage of economic development, it is analyzed that the population moves to a region where employment opportunity is high in the situation where foreign capital is coming in. It is analyzed that the direction of inflow of foreign capital and the imbalance of development in the region will be determined in the situation where the economic development is carried out through foreign capital.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.27 no.2
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• pp.63-78
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• 2018

Pagodas in Myanmar can be largely divided into Zedi and Pato. Zedi is a developed form of the early domed pagodas in India and Sri Lanka, which can be found in the introduction of Buddhism in Myanmar and the comparison of early pagodas in India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. On the other hand, Pato is where statues of Buddha were enshrined, which is why many scholars referred to it as a temple. However, this study proposes that Pato shall be referred to as a temple-style pagoda in a form unique to Myanmar, based on the origin of Pato, definition of pagodas, and Sarira Enrichment Record of Pato. Moreover, it seems more appropriate to name this type of structure Stupa Temple(塔殿) or Stupa Shrine(塔堂) rather than a Buddhist temple(佛殿) or Buddhist shrine(佛堂) for clear distinction. Pato, or temple-style pagodas, has a ${\acute{S}}ikhara-style$ structure at the center like Ananda Pato upon entering the Pagan (Bagan) kingdom period, on which Zedi-style structures are built. As a result of examining the integration of various Buddhist schools and religions focused on Theravada during the period of King Anawrahta and King Kyanzittha, the ${\acute{S}}ikhara-style$ structure is a symbolic representation of the fact that Theravada embraced Hinduism. The common features shared by pagodas in Myanmar are the centrality of place and the verticality of $y{\check{a}}ngti{\bar{a}}n$ (looking up to the sky) in terms of shape. All temples are placed at the most important and central space, and their forms represent strong religious $y{\check{a}}ngti{\bar{a}}n$ and verticality. These are the features that stand out most among various pagodas in Buddhist countries.

• Journal of Fashion Business
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• v.25 no.1
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• pp.16-38
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• 2021

The purpose of this study was to develop a fashion design with a greater sense of modernism based on the characteristics and design elements of Myanmar traditional clothing focusing on the Yandanapon Mandalay period of the last dynasty of Myanmar using the SCAMPER technique, which is one of the creative methodologies. Contemporary menswear fashion designs were developed based on the individual elements of the questionnaire on the SCAMPER technique using fashion design elements. The design development process was as follows. First, this study set the developmental theme of contemporary menswear fashion design in Myanmar's traditional clothing style during the Yadanapon Mandalay period. Second, to develop designs using the SCAMPER technique, the elements of Myanmar's traditional clothing were first divided into item composition and design elements, followed by application of the SCAMPER questionnaire. Also, various designs were developed by combining and applying different elements. Third, optionally selective elements evolved from the design development process using the SCAMPER technique questionnaire. Fourth, the design evaluation was used to select the designs matching the study purpose out of 55 design sketches via FGI (Focus Group Interview) consisting of four fashion designers. Fifth, a total of six designs were selected by additional design modification. Based on the aforementioned processes, a total of six works of men's clothing design were presented. This study provides basic data for the cultural and aesthetic understanding of traditional Myanmar clothing. It also serves as a source of new ideas to express modern fashion design in different ways.