• Journal of the Korean association of regional geographers
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• v.3 no.1
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• pp.155-163
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• 1997

The Mongolian ger is ideally suited to the mongol's steppe climate and the nomadic way of life. This is a multipurpose dwelling which can be easily collapsed, transported to another place and put up again fully preserving its original shape. The pastoral nomadic ger has two key components: the wooden framework and the felt cover. The wooden parts are the walls(khana), the long poles(un), the smoke escape(toono) and its supports(bagana). One wall consists of 10-15 branches of willow tree. each about 1.5m high bound together in a way making it possible to fold it for transportation and then unfold it like an accordion. The unfolded walls are connected to form a circle. The long poles(un) are fastened to the upper part of the walls, with the other end passed through the toono hole, the only sky window and smoke escape through it from the ger. The toono is propped up by two posts, called bagana. All this forms the wooden framework of the ger, which is covered with felt. When the herders fire up their metal stoves, the temperature inside the ger becomes quite comfortable. Because the nomads live in a climate where there is only one growing season in a year, they do not make long migrations to new pastures. Livestock subsist on standing vegetation for eight months of the year. The basic pasture migration strategy is to leave enough standing vegetation at the end of the growing season in September to suffice until the new growth appears the following May. Mongolians use a type of compressed tea leaf that is called "brick" tea in English because it is rock solid and roughly the shape of a brick. And they consume a larger percent(88%) of fat from animal products such as meat, milk, butter, and cheese than any other people in the world. Milk products made from the milk of sheep, yak, and goats are major foods in the nomad's diet, but they are produced mainly in summer when all the animals are lactating. Mongolians made their special nomadic food culture on the steppe.

• Journal of Animal Science and Technology
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• v.49 no.6
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• pp.689-698
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• 2007

This study aims to estimate the genetic parameters for carcass traits on Hanwoo of breeding farmhouses using Animal Products Grading Service’s data of 428,812 cattle from 101 slaughterhouses nationwide from 2000 to 2005. Using carcass traits of carcass weight, eye muscle area, backfat thickness, marbling score, meat color and fat color that greatly influence Hanwoo's grade, the effects of carcass year, carcass season, sex and carcass region were estimated. Based upon carcass traits of carcass weight, eye muscle area, backfat thickness, marbling score and meat color that greatly influence Hanwoo’s grade, the heritabilities and genetic parameters were estimated of 17,578 Hanwoo slaughtered in 2005 with existing herdbook, where EM-REML algorithm was used in estimating genetic parameters. The mean and standard deviation of each carcass trait are 321.42±53.62kg, 76.25±10.43cm2, 9.96± 4.14mm, 3.75±2.00, 4.83±0.48 and 2.99±0.40, for carcass weight, eye muscle area, backfat thickness, marbling score, meat color and fat color, respectively. As a result of analysis on the effects of carcass year, the carcass weight, backfat thickness and meat color came out highest as 359.40±0.181, 9.82±0.017 and 4.90±0.002, respectively in 2004. As a result of analysis on the effects of carcass season, the carcass weight and eye muscle area came out highest as 345.88±0.144 and 79.57±0.033 respectively in spring, and the backfat thickness was highest as 8.78±0.013 in winter, and the meat color and fat color slightly came out higher as 4.88±0.002 and 2.96±0.001 in fall, while the marbling score was highest as 3.29±0.006 in summer. The results of the analysis on the effects of sex indicated that the backfat thickness and fat color were highest as 10.53±0.010 and 3.07±0.001 in cow, the carcass weight came out highest in Hanwoo steer as 368.03±0.068kg, the eye muscle area were highest as 82.96±0.042 in bull, and the marbling score was highest as 4.19±0.007 in steer, and the meat color was highest as 4.89±0.001 in cow. Regarding the results of analysis on the effects of carcass region, the carcass weight, eye muscle area,

• Journal of Dairy Science and Biotechnology
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• v.34 no.1
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• pp.21-35
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• 2016

Recently, there has been a rapid increase in the sale and purchase of an array of organic products. In particular, organic milk has grown in popularity. This growth could lead to expensive, premium retail prices for various organic cow's milk products. In fact, most consumers believe that (1) dairy farming to produce organic milk is beneficial for human health and (2) organic milk products are made without the use of various antibiotics, synthetic chemicals, genetic modification, extra hormones, and so on. Several factors, including breed, diet, and stage of lactation, are known to influence the composition of milk. Therefore, this review (1) presents a research outline to compare organic and conventional milk and (2) provides a summary of individual elements that affect the composition of milk.

• Korean Journal of Poultry Science
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• v.43 no.4
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• pp.235-242
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• 2016

This study was conducted to investigate the microbiological sanitation status of raw chicken meat distributed in Korea, and potential changes in chicken breast quality during storage. The microbiological sanitation status analysis of raw chicken involved studying the results of microbiological monitoring for a 5-year period (2010~2014) by the Korean Food and Drug Administration. Furthermore, the microbiological status of raw chicken meat in meat packing centers and shops in Seoul/Gyeonggi, Kangwon, and Chungcheong Provinces was investigated from July to August 2015. The total bacterial counts of chicken meat in the packaging centers and meat shop of these Provinces were below the level specified in the Korean Meat Microbiological Guideline ($1{\times}10^7$ colony forming units [CFU]/g) and showed a similar microbiological sanitation status with results of the microbiological monitoring for the analyzed 5-year period. To evaluate the relationship between quality change and microbiological level of the meat distributed in Korea, the pH and microbiological and sensory quality characteristics of the chicken breast samples during storage at $4{\pm}2^{\circ}C$were determined. On day 4, the total bacterial count of the chicken breast was 6.76 log CFU/g, which was close to the official $1{\times}10^7CFU/g$ standard, the pH was 5.96, and the overall acceptability was reduced significantly (p<0.05). In particular, the aroma score was <5, indicating that the consumer panel expressed a negative perception even though the chicken contained a lower microbial level than that specified in the Korean microbiological guideline. These results suggest that the current Korean microbiological guideline for raw chicken meat may require a stricter level of up to $1{\times}10^6CFU/g$ to satisfy both meat safety standards and organoleptic quality for consumers.

• Journal of Food Hygiene and Safety
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• v.39 no.1
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• pp.54-60
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• 2024

This study investigated the effectiveness of using pathogens and aqueous acids to reduce the Aspergillus ochraceus and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa contamination in livestock production environments. For this study, 1 mL of each bacterial suspension (10⁷-10⁸ spores/mL) was inoculated on a knife surface, dried at 37℃, and used under each treatment condition. First, to investigate the effect of organic acids, acetic, lactic, and citric acids were used. Subsequently, to select the appropriate concentration, they were prepared at concentrations of 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5%, respectively. Accordingly, to further maximize the effect of organic acid treatment, we combined the treatment with ultraviolet light. The two strains showed a significant difference (P<0.05) compared to the initial strain, with a greater than 90% decrease in the concentrations of all organic acids. Consequently, acetic and lactic acids decreased by approximately 5 and 2 log colony forming unit (CFU)/cm², respectively, when treated with ultraviolet light (360 mJ/cm²); however, citric acid decreased by less than 1 log CFU/cm². However, when manufactured with 4% acetic acid, a severe malodor was emitted, making it difficult for workers to use it in a production environment. Accordingly, the optimal treatment conditions for organic acid and ultraviolet light for application were selected as follows: immersion in a 4% lactic acid solution for 1 minute and then, sterilization with ultraviolet light at 360 mJ/cm². Finally, when a pork meat sample was cut with a knife that was finally washed with lactic acid and treated with ultraviolet light, the low level of inoculum transferred from the cleaned knife to the surface of the sample was not detected. In conclusion, using this established method can prevent cross-contamination of the surface of the meat during processing.

• Journal of The Korean Society of Grassland and Forage Science
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• v.25 no.1
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• pp.71-82
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• 2005

Khori(高麗) refers to the Chaabog(reindeer) that live on lichens(蘚) on Mt. Soyon(鮮) in which pastures are the cold and dry plateau of North Eurasia. Thus, the origin region of the Khori or Koguryo that are the ancestors of the reindeer-herding pastoral nomads(馴鹿 遊牧民) can be said to be the Steppe-Taiga-Tundra pastoral areas of North Eurasia and North America. When the pastoral nomads moved on to the great mountain(大山) zone of the Jangbaek(長白) to the Baekdu(白頭) Mountains, they could have been in contact with pastoral farmers or agricultural farmers living there and they became the farmers remaining on agricultural farms. They were the Koryo people, the ancestors of Korea. Staying in one place, they gradually forgot the origin of their reindeer-herding pastoral nomadic history in the Northwest area of Mt. Soyon, the small mountain(小山) zone of the Steppe-Taiga-Tundra pastoral areas. In other words, they lost their identity as reindeer-herding pastoral nomads when they entered the agricultural area after leaving the pastoral area. However, since their basic genes had already formed when they lived on the cold and dry plateau of North Eurasia, it is possible to study their pastoral nomadic history focusing on 'the minority living in the broad area(廣域少數)', by utilizing highly advanced biotechnological science and focusing on genes and information technology innovation, and removing various past hindrances in research. Therefore, it is not so difficult to restore the reindeerherding pastoral nomadic history of the Koguryo(高句麗) people and secure their pastoral nomadic identity, of which the first steps have already been taken into their historical stages. The Eurasian continent and the Korean peninsula, especially the cold and dry plateau of North Eurasia and the Korean peninsula have been closely related to each other ecologically and historically. They can never be a separate space at all. The Eurasian continent lies horizontally east to west and thus, the continent forms an isothermal zone. Also, since the time of producing their own foods, it was relatively easy for people with their technology to move to other places owing to the pastoral nomadic characteristic of mobility. Unlike the Chungyen(中原) region, western Asia and the regions covering the Siberia-Manchu-Korean peninsula where food production revolution was first made were connected to the Mongolian lichens route(蘚苔之路: Ni, ukinii jam) and steppe roads. Although the ecological conditions of nature have changed a bit throughout a long history, it was natural for the many tribes in North Asia living on the largest Steppe-Taiga-Tundra area in the world to have believed 'the legends related to animals in relation to their founders and ancestors(獸祖傳說)'. Assuming that Siberian tigers and the tigers living on Mt. Baekdu were connected ecologically and genetically because of the ecological characteristics of the animals, and their migration from plateau to plateau, we would suspect that the Chosun(朝鮮) tribe living on Mt. Baekdu were ethnically and culturally more closely connected to the farther removed Ural-Altai tribes that lived on the cold and dry plateau region than to the Han(i14;) tribe who lived in Chungyen(中原) that was close to Mt. Baekdu. More evidence is the structure of the Korean language which has the form of 'Subject + Object + Verb', which is assumed to have originated from the speedy lifestyle of the reindeer-herding pastoral nomads. The structure is quite different from that of the Han(漢) language, which is based on agricultural life. Also, it is natural for reindeer riding reindeerherding pastoral nomads or horse-riding sheep-herding pastoral nomads(騎馬, 羊遊牧民) to have held military and political power over the region and eventually to have established an ancient pastoral nomadic empire in the process of their conquest of agricultural regions. The stages for founding global empires in the history of mankind maybe largely divided into two, in terms of ecological conditions and occupations. They are the steppes and the oceans. Of course, the steppe-based empires were established based on the skills to deal with horses and the ability to shoot arrows while riding horses, along with the use of iron ware in the 8th century BC. The steppe-based empires became the foundation for an oceanic empire, which could have been established by the use of warships and warship guns since the 15th Century. Based on those facts, we know that Chosun, Puyo(夫餘), and Koguryo are the products of a developmental process of pastoral nomadic empires on the steppes. Maybe we can easily find the pastoral nomadic identity of the Koguryo more than we expected when we trace the origins and history of the Korean tribe living in the pastures located in the northwest area of Mt. Jangbaek by focusing on pastoral nomadic mobility and organization just as we have investigated the historic origins of Anglo-Saxons in America by focusing on the times before the 15th Century. In the process, we should keep in mind that English culture originated from the Industrial Revolution and was directly delivered to the American continent, although America was far from England and was not an intermediate point on long sojourns either. Further, American culture came back to England in a more advanced form later. The most important thing currently to be resolved is to cause Koreans to look back on their own history in a freer way of thinking and with diverse, profound, and sharp insight, taking away the old and existing conventional recognition that is entangled with complicated interests with Korean people and other countries. The meanings of Chosun, Khori, and Solongos have been interpreted arbitrarily without any historic evidence by the scholars who followed conventional tradition of fixed-minded aristocrats in an agricultural society. If the Siberian cultural properties of the stone age, the earthenware age, the bronze age, and the iron age are analyzed in such a way, archaeological discovery will never be able to contribute to the restoration of the Koguryo's pastoral nomadic identity. One should transcend the errors that tend to interpret the cultural properties discovered in the pastoral nomadic regions as not being differentiated from those of agricultural regions and just interpret them altogether from the agricultural point of view. A more careful intention is required in the interpretation of cultural properties of ancient Korean empires that seem to have been formed due to mutual interactions of pastoral nomadic and agricultural cultures. Also, it is required that the conventional recognition chain of 'reverse-genes' be severed, which has placed more weight on agricultural properties than pastoral nomadic ones, since their settlement on agricultural farms was made after the establishment of their ancient pastoral nomadic empires. There is no reason at all to place priority on stoneware, earthenware, bronze ware, and iron ware than on wooden ware(木器) and other ware which were made of animal skins(皮器), bones and horns(骨角器), in analyzing the history in the regions of reindeer or sheep pastures. Reading ancient Korean history from the perspective of pastoral nomadic history, one feels strongly the instinctive emotions to return to the natural 'mother place'. The reindeer-herding pastoral nomadic identity of the Koguryo people that has been accumulated in volumes in their genes and hidden deep inside and have interacted organically could be reborn with Burqanism(Burqan refers to 不咸 in Chinese), which was their religion by birth and symbolized as the red willow(紅柳=不咸). The mother place of the Koguryo's people is the endless vast green pastures of North Eurasia and North America, where we anticipated the development of Korean livestock farming following the inherent properties in the genes of the reindeer-herding pastoral nomads with Korean ancestors. We anticipate that the place would be the core resource that could contribute to the development of life of living creatures following the inherent properties of their genes and biotechnological factors. In other words, biotechnology used for a search for clues on the well-being of humans could be the fruit brought by Burqanism of the Koguryo people and the fruit of the globalization of Korean livestock farming. It is the Chosun farmer in China come from the vast nomadic reindeer pastures of North Eurasia that resolved the food problem of a billion Chinese people with lowland paddy rice seeds (水稻) by transforming Heilongjiang Province(黑龍江省) into an oceanic lowland paddy rice field(水田). Even Mao Tse-tung(毛擇東) could not resolve the food problem by his revolution campaigns for tens of years. Today is the very time that requires the development of special livestock farming following the inherent properties of the ancient Korean reindeer-herding pastoral nomads that respected the dignity of life on the cold and dry plateau of North Eurasia and the America continent. I suggest that research should be started from the pastures of the Dariganga Steppe in East Mongolia that was the homeland of Hanwoo(韓牛) and the central horse-herding steppe place(牧馬場) of Chingis Khan's Mongolia. The Dariganga Steppe is awash with an affluent natural environment for pastoral nomadic living however, the quality of life of the pastoral nomads there is still low. I suggest we Koreans, the descendents of the Koguryo, should take our first steps for our livestock farming business project and develop the Northern nomadic pastures, here at the pastures of the Dariganga Steppe, which is the Mongolian core place of state-of-the-art technology for military weapons.

• Journal of Animal Science and Technology
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• v.46 no.1
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• pp.83-90
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• 2004

Processed meals, such as a ground meat and hamburger patty, are required to ensure that no pathogens remain in the final products. However, there was no rapid method available to verify that the recommended end-point cooking temperature(EPT) was reached. Thus, the objective of this study was to rapidly determine EPT of ground pork hams using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis(SOS-PAGE), based on the disappearance of sarcoplasmic proteins after cooking. Fresh pork hams were added two levels of salt(0, 2%) and fat(15, 25%) combinations, and stored in refrigerator overnight, and cooked to internal cooking temperatures of $64^{\circ}C$ to $74^{\circ}C$ with $2^{\circ}C$ increments. Cooked pork hams were measured cooking loss(CL, %), protein solubility(PS) and SOS-PAGE. CL(%) was reduced with the addition of 2% salt, as compared to the control, regardless of fat contents. It was also increased with increasing eooking temperature. Protein solubility was affected by the cooking temperature, resulting in reduced PS up to $64^{\circ}C$(P < 0.05), but remained constant higher than $68^{\circ}C$. In SOS-PAGE analysis, protein bands with the molecular weights of 36 and 66 kDa were affected by the addition of salt and fat combinations. regardless of treatments. These protein fractions were decreased gradually with increased cooking temperatures up to $68^{\circ}C$ ${\sim}$ $70^{\circ}C$ and might be good indicators for the determination of EPT in ground pork hams.

• Korean Journal of Agricultural Science
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• v.25 no.1
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• pp.79-88
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• 1998

This study was performed in order to apply to effective breeding of Korean native cattle on the molecular genetic level obtained from PCR and nucleotide sequencing analysis of BoLA DRB3 exon2 that has important roles in host immune defence. Genomic DNA used in this study was prepared from the blood of Korean native cattle in Korean Native Cattle Improvement Center of National Livestock Cooperation. The results obtained from this study are summarized as follows: 1. Genomic DNA extracted from the blood of Korean native cattle was subjected to electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gel. Major band was bigger than 12.2kb, indicating that genomic DNA was well prepared for PCR. Amplified products of 284bp fragments was obtained the amplification of BoLA DRB3 exon2 gene by PCR. 2. Cloning of BoLA DRB3 exon2 of Korean native cattle with pCR2.1 vector was conformed by 300bp fragment from recombinent plasmid that restricted with enzyme digestion of EcoRI. 3. Homology of BoLA DRB3 exon2 alleles of parent was 82.0% between sire's alleles and 90.1% between dam's alleles. 4. In pedigree analysis using BoLA DRB3 exon2 gene, sequencing result of BoLA DRB3 exon2 genes showed inheritance by Mendelian mode through the parents to their offspring. 5. Taking together those experimental results, pedigree was confirmed on the basis of sequencing for the alleles of parents and offspring. This knowledge by the molecular biological approach could be served for the improvement of Korean native cattle.

• Journal of Environmental Health Sciences
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• v.40 no.6
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• pp.454-468
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• 2014

Objectives: This study was conducted to investigate the actual condition of the farm work environment and personal protective equipment as part of the effort to improve livestock work for the safety and health of poultry farmers and provide basic data for establishing plans to improve and develop personal protective equipment. Methods: For this purpose, a questionnaire survey on general information about stables, the poultry work environment, accidents, the wearing of work clothes and personal protective equipment, and the level of awareness related to personal protective equipment was conducted among 148 poultry farmers. Results: As a result, it was found that poultry workplace environment was exposed to such risks as fine dusts; organic dusts; poisonous gases; odorous substances; chicken excrement; contact with chickens, bacteria or viruses; and accidents related to machine operation. Thirteen percent of respondents suffered severe respiratory diseases, and the most frequently injured sites due to accidents were the hands (25.7%), knees (23.8%), arms (17.3%), and head (10.9%). The most frequent type of accident was collisions between the body and obstacles or machinery during movement (36.4%), followed by erroneous machine operation such as feeders and electric shocks (8.5%). Regarding the wearing of work clothes and personal protective equipment, 51.7% of the respondents wore worn-out clothing or everyday clothes, whereas only 32.0% wore work clothes. The percentage of farmers who wore proper protective equipment for the work environment during poultry work was 48.4%. The most frequently used type of protective equipment was boots (38.9%), followed by mask (36.7%), gloves (36.3%), appropriate work clothes (22.6%), quarantine clothes (17.6%), helmets (13.4%), and goggles (12.6%). The rate of wearing goggles was low because they were considered inconvenient and lowered work efficiency. Furthermore, they purchased everyday products available on the market for their personal protective equipment which were not appropriate for maintaining safety in an actual harmful environment and its consequent risks. As a result of the survey of the awareness level related to personal protective equipment, their levels of awareness of accidents and attitude proved to be average or higher, but the practice of wearing protective equipment and the level of knowledge and management of personal protective equipment were lower. Conclusion: This survey found that the wearing status of personal protective equipment among poultry farmers was insufficient even though they were exposed to risks. Most respondents were aware of the necessity of wearing personal protective equipment and of the potential for accidents, but they did not wear proper protective equipment. Their wearing rate was low due to a lack of knowledge about protective equipment, as well as the inconvenience of wearing it. Therefore there is a need to improve and develop specialized personal protective equipment for respiration, hands, and eyes, as well as work clothes that can protect farmers from major harmful matter that is generated in the poultry workplace. Based on the results of this investigation, we will conduct further studies on the required performance and design directions of personal protective equipment while collecting more objective data through field-oriented assessments.

• Journal of Appropriate Technology
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• v.6 no.1
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• pp.21-27
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• 2020

The ASF, which originated in Africa and threatens the world, landed in Asia in 2018 in China, and became a stern threat to the security of the Korean Peninsula when North Korea officially reported the ASF to the OIE in May 2019. In 1921, Montgomery, a British veterinary pathologist, made headlines by naming the African swine fever "African Swine Fever," or ASF, a disease caused by a high fatality virus that existed in East Africa. The ASF, which was a pandemic of endemic diseases in Africa, landed in Portgal around 1957 and swept through farms in Lisbon, Portugal. The ASF continued to settle in Spain and Portugal, causing 40 years of damage until the end of the 1990s, and is now in progress after landing on the Italian island of Sardinia in 1978. The virus, which landed in Portiport of Georgia on the Black Sea coast of the Black Sea in 2007, spread to Russia and caused massive damage to China in 2018, then rapidly spread to Vietnam, Laos and Myanmar in May 2019 and spread across the country, causing massive damage to the pork industry and is now in progress. Just three months after confirming the outbreak in North Korea, the outbreak at farms in Paju and Yeoncheon was confirmed on Sept. 16, 2019, leaving South Korea with the stigma of ASF-causing countries, and although the ASF's nationwide expansion has been blocked, it is currently underway in wild boars. If the ongoing ASF in the two Koreas becomes indigenous, it would be a major disaster not only for the pork industry but also for the Korean Peninsula economy. Under the current circumstances, it is impossible to focus only on veterinary areas limited to South Korea, ruling out risk factors from the ASF outbreak. Currently, it is difficult to prevent damage to the pork industry due to the ASF outbreak due to the poor water defense reality in North Korea, and as it is adjacent to China, which has a high risk of developing various epidemic diseases, there is a need for the two Koreas to jointly conduct quarantine and quarantine on the border areas. First of all, I think rapid exchange of information and education on ASF and other diseases is necessary before establishing a joint defense system on the Korean Peninsula. It is important to conduct thorough quarantine and disinfection of ASF-generated areas in North Korea, and areas bordering China and Russia, and jointly conduct thorough quarantine and control of livestock and livestock products in circulation. Cooperation by the South and North Korean water defense industries to prevent the protracted ASF on the Korean Peninsula by all means and methods is essential.