• Journal of Oriental Neuropsychiatry
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• v.14 no.1
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• pp.59-74
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• 2003

Alzheimer's disease(AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, which is pathologically characterized by neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles associated with the acetylcholinesterase, apolipoprotein E and butylcholinesterase, and by mutations in the presenilin genes PS1 and PS2, and amyloid precursor proteins (APP) overexpression. The present research is to examine the inhibition effect of CPRT on PS-1, PS-2 and APP overexpression by detected to Western blotting. To verify the Effects of CPRT on cognitive deficits further, we tested it on the scopolamine-induced amnesia model of the mice using the Morris water maze tests, and there was ameliorative effects of memory impairment as a protection to scopolamine. CPRT only partially blocked the increase in blood serum level of acetylcholinesterase and Uric acid induced by scopolamine, whereas blood glucose level was shown to attenuate the amnesia induced by scopolamine and inreased extracellular serum level compared with only scopolamine injection. In conclusion, studies of CPRT that has been known as anti-choline and inhibition ablilities of APP overexpression, this could also be used further as a important research data for a preventive and promising symptomatic treatment for Alzheimer's disease.

• Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing
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• v.49 no.3
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• pp.317-328
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• 2019

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to identify the effect of ghrelin on memory impairment in a rat model of vascular dementia induced by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. Methods: Randomized controlled groups and the posttest design were used. We established the representative animal model of vascular dementia caused by bilateral common carotid artery occlusion and administered $80{\mu}g/kg$ ghrelin intraperitoneally for 4 weeks. First, behavioral studies were performed to evaluate spatial memory. Second, we used molecular biology techniques to determine whether ghrelin ameliorates the damage to the structure and function of the white matter and hippocampus, which are crucial to learning and memory. Results: Ghrelin improved the spatial memory impairment in the Y-maze and Morris water maze test. In the white matter, demyelination and atrophy of the corpus callosum were significantly decreased in the ghrelin-treated group. In the hippocampus, ghrelin increased the length of hippocampal microvessels and reduced the microvessels pathology. Further, we confirmed angiogenesis enhancement through the fact that ghrelin treatment increased vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-related protein levels, which are the most powerful mediators of angiogenesis in the hippocampus. Conclusion: We found that ghrelin affected the damaged myelin sheaths and microvessels by increasing angiogenesis, which then led to neuroprotection and improved memory function. We suggest that further studies continue to accumulate evidence of the effect of ghrelin. Further, we believe that the development of therapeutic interventions that increase ghrelin may contribute to memory improvement in patients with vascular dementia.

• The Journal of Korean Medicine
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• v.29 no.5
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• pp.67-76
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• 2008

Objectives : Amnesia is theloss or impairment of memory, caused by physical injury, disease, drugs, or emotional trauma. Recently, the average life span is increasing, while at the same time, the incidence of dementia-like diseases in conjunction with amnesia are also increasing. Therefore learning and memory are very important issues in modern society. Ancient Korean physicians used several herbs to treat dementia and these herbal effects were described in Korean herbal books. Among them are some reports on several cognitive-enhancing herbs which have since been shown to improve dementia in recent pharmacological studies, such as Panax ginseng; however, the facilitatory effects of many Korean cognitive-enhancing herbs on learning and memory are limited. Learning and memory are essential requirements for every living organism in order to cope with environmental demands; cholinergic systems are known to be involved in learning and memory. Methods : In this study, the effects of Acori graminei rhizoma (AGR, 石菖蒲) on learning and memory were investigated by Morris water maze, eight-arm radial maze, and the effects on the central cholinergic system of rats injected with scopolamine. Results : In the water maze, the experimental animals were trained to find a platform in a fixed position for 6 days and then received a 60 sec probe trial in which the platform was removed from the pool on the 7th day. In the eight-arm radial maze, the animals were tested four times per day for 6 days. Scopolamine impaired performance of the maze tests and reduced activity of acetylcholinesterase (AchE) in the hippocampus, which is a marker for the central cholinergic system. There were significant reversals from the scopolamine-induced deficits on learning and memory in these tests, through daily administrations of AGR (100 mg/kg, p.o.) over 14 consecutive days. These treatments also reduced the loss of cholinergic activity in the hippocampus induced by scopolamine. Conclusions : These results demonstrated that AGR ameliorated learning and memory deficits by affecting the central acetylcholine system.

• Research in Vestibular Science
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• v.17 no.4
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• pp.134-141
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• 2018

Objectives: We aimed to study the role of vestibular input on spatial memory performance in mice that had undergone bilateral surgical labyrinthectomy, semicircular canal (SCC) occlusion and 4G hypergravity exposure. Methods: Twelve to 16 weeks old ICR mice (n=30) were used for the experiment. The experimental group divided into 3 groups. One group had undergone bilateral chemical labyrinthectomy, and the other group had performed SCC occlusion surgery, and the last group was exposed to 4G hypergravity for 2 weeks. The movement of mice was recorded using camera in Y maze which had 3 radial arms (35 cm long, 7 cm high, 10 cm wide). We counted the number of visiting arms and analyzed the information of arm selection using program we developed before and after procedure. Results: The bilateral labyrinthectomy group which semicircular canal and otolithic function was impaired showed low behavioral performance and spacial memory. The semicircular canal occlusion with $CO_2$ laser group which only semicircular canal function was impaired showed no difference in performance activity and spatial memory. However the hypergravity exposure group in which only otolithic function impaired showed spatial memory function was affected but the behavioral performance was spared. The impairment of spatial memory recovered after a few days after exposure in hypergravity group. Conclusions: This spatial memory function was affected by bilateral vestibular loss. Space-related information processing seems to be determined by otolithic organ information rather than semicircular canals. Due to otolithic function impairment, spatial learning was impaired after exposure to gravity changes in animals and this impaired performance was compensated after normal gravity exposure.

• Therapeutic Science for Rehabilitation
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• v.4 no.2
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• pp.73-83
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• 2015

Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of the Spaced Retrieval Training (SRT) with Errorless learning on the elderly with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI)'s memory, Instrumental Activities Daily Living, Depression symptom. Methods: A single subject experimental research with ABA design was conducted in this study on the 78-years-old person who was enrolled in day-care center. The total experimental sessions were 16 which composed of 3 sessions for baseline, 10 sessions for intervention and 3 sessions for second baseline. K-Auditory Verbal Learning Test (K-AVLT) was measured for the memory each session. For the measurement of cognitive function, IADL, depression Symptom, Korean version of Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA-K), Philadelphia Geriatric Center Instrumental Activities Daily Living (PGC IADL), Geriatric Depression Scale Korean Version (GDS-K) was measured at pre-post test. Results: Memory at the phase B was improved than Phase A. At the phase B, the scores trend was ascending, but after the intervention at the phase A', the scores trend was descending. The scores of MoCA-K were improved, PGC IADL were maintained, GDS-K were decreased. Conclusion: This results support the evidence of the SRT with EL on the elderly with MCI in the clinical setting. In the future, the correlation researches about MCI's memory and other functional factors will be needed for effective occupational therapy service.

• Journal of Pharmacopuncture
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• v.20 no.1
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• pp.10-17
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• 2017

Objectives: Boswellic acid (BA), a compound isolated from the gum-resin of Boswellia carterii, is a pentacyclic terpenoid that is active against many inflammatory diseases, including cancer, arthritis, chronic colitis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, and memory impairment, but the mechanism is poorly understood. This study investigated the effects of boswellic acid on spatial learning and memory impairment induced by trimethyltin (TMT) in Wistar rats. Methods: Forty male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 5 groups: Normal group, TMT-administrated rats (8.0 mg/kg, Intraperitoneally, i.p.) and TMT + BA (40, 80 and 160 mg/kg, i.p.)-administrated rats. BA was used daily for 21 days. To evaluate the cognitive improving of BA, we performed the Morris water maze test. Moreover, to investigate the neuroprotective effect of BA, we determined the acetylcholinesterase (AchE) activity, the malondialdehyde (MDA) level as a marker of lipid peroxidation, and the glutathione (GSH) content in the cerebral cortex. Results: Treatment with TMT impaired learning and memory, and treatment with BA at a dose of 160 mg/kg produced a significant improvement in learning and memory abilities in the water maze tasks. Consistent with behavioral data, the activity of AChE was significantly increased in the TMT-injected rats compared to the control group (P < 0.01) whereas all groups treated with BA presented a more significant inhibitory effect against AChE than the TMT-injected animals. In addition, TMT reduced the GSH content and increased the MDA level in the cerebral cortex as compared to the control group) P < 0.01). On the other hand, treatment with BA at 160 mg/kg slightly increased the GSH content and reduced the MDA level in comparison to the TMT-administered group (P < 0.01). Conclusion: The above results suggest that the effect of BA in improving the cognitive function may be mediated through its antioxidant activity.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.38 no.1
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• pp.1-7
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• 2014

Background: Although ginsenosides such as Rg1, Rb1 and Rg3 have shown promise as potential nutraceuticals for cognitive impairment, their use has been limited due to high production cost and low potency. In particular, the process of extracting pure Rg3 from ginseng is laborious and expensive. Methods: We described the methods in preparing ginseol k-g3, an Rg3-enriched fraction, and evaluated its effects on scopolamine-induced memory impairment in mice. Results: Ginseol k-g3 (25-200 mg/kg) significantly reversed scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment in the passive avoidance, but not in Y-maze testing. Ginseol k-g3 (50 and 200 mg/kg) improved escape latency in training trials and increased swimming times within the target zone of the Morris water maze. The effect of ginseol k-g3 on the water maze task was more potent than that of Rg3 or Red ginseng. Acute or subchronic (6 d) treatment of ginseol k-g3 did not alter normal locomotor activity of mice in an open field. Ginseol k-g3 did not inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity, unlike donezepil, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. Rg3 enrichment through the ginseol k-g3 fraction enhanced the efficacy of Rg3 in scopolamine-induced memory impairment in mice as demonstrated in the Morris water maze task. Conclusion: The effects of ginseol k-g3 in ameliorating scopolamine-induced memory impairment in the passive avoidance and Morris water maze tests indicate its specific influence on reference or long-term memory. The mechanism underlying the reversal of scopolamine-induced amnesia by ginseol k-g3 is not yet known, but is not related to anticholinesterase-like activity.

• Journal of Korean Public Health Nursing
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• v.32 no.1
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• pp.81-95
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• 2018

Purpose: This study was conducted to identify the effects of a group cognitive improvement program on cognitive function, depression and self-esteem in elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment. Methods: This was an experimental study that employed a pre-post design of a non-equivalence control group. The subjects were 52 elderly people with mild cognitive impairment, 25 of whom were assigned to the experimental group and 27 to the control group. The program was conducted for a total of 12 sessions for 60 minutes each. Data were analyzed using the ${\chi}2-test$, Fisher's exact test, and Independent t-test with the SPSS 20.0 program. Results: After the intervention, the group who participated showed improvement in all areas of cognitive function based on MMSE-KC (F=26.37, p.<0.001), the Rey Complex Figure Test: copy (F=20.66, p.<0.001), Immediate memory of Seoul Verbal Learning Test-Elderly's version (F=29.68, p.<0.001), delayed memory (F=45.79 p.<0.001), memory recall (F=28.97, p.<0.001), Forward of Digit Span Test (F=9.25, p=.004), backward (F=8.33, p.=0.006), language comprehension (F=13.42, p.<0.001), and digit symbol coding (F=17.74, p.<0.001) relative to the control group. Moreover depression (F=24.09, p.<0.001) was decreased in program participants, whereas self-esteem (F=40.24, p.<0.001) was increased. Conclusion: The program could be a useful intervention because the results show that the group cognitive improvement program has a significant effect on cognitive function, depression and self-esteem in elderly with mild cognitive impairment.

• Journal of Physiology & Pathology in Korean Medicine
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• v.31 no.5
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• pp.270-276
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• 2017

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the water extract of Albizziae Cortex (AC) on the learning and memory impairments. AC was administered to normal mouse and scopolamine-injected amnesia mouse model. Passive avoidance test, Y-maze test, and Morris water maze test were conducted to confirm the cognitive-enhancing activities of AC. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and acetylcholine (Ach) content were measured after oral administration of AC. On the passive avoidance test, AC (200 mg/kg) significantly increased latency time and recovered scopolamine-impaired learning and memory in mice. In addition, AC (200 mg/kg) reduced Exploration time in target quadrant and reversed the scopolamine-induced cognitive impairments in the Y-maze test. Moreover, AC (200 mg/kg) increased exploration time in target quadrant and improved scopolamine-reduced escape latencies in the Morris water maze test. These effects were presented by regulatory effects of AC on AChE activity and Ach content. Taken together, AC increases cognitive-enhancing activities and ameliorates scopolamine-induced learning and memory impairment. AC might be a potential agent for prevention and treatment of amnesia and dementia.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.40 no.3
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• pp.211-219
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• 2016

Background: Panax ginseng root is used in traditional oriental medicine for human health. Its main active components such as saponins and polysaccharides have been widely evaluated for treating diseases, but secondary active components such as oligosaccharides have been rarely studied. This study aimed to assess the impact of water-soluble ginseng oligosaccharides (WGOS), which were isolated from the warm-water extract of Panax ginseng root, on scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment in mice and its antineuroinflammatory mechanisms. Methods: We investigated the impact of WGOS on scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment in mice by using Morris water maze and novel object recognition task. We also analyzed the impact of WGOS on scopolamine-induced inflammatory response (e.g., the hyperexpression of proinflammatory cytokines IL-$1{\beta}$ and IL-6 and astrocyte activation) by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) immunohistochemical staining. Results: WGOS pretreatment protected against scopolamine-induced learning and memory deficits in the Morris water maze and in the novel object recognition task. Furthermore, WGOS pretreatment downregulated scopolamine-induced hyperexpression of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-$1{\beta}$ and IL-6 mRNA and astrocyte activation in the hippocampus. These results indicate that WGOS can protect against scopolamine-induced alterations in learning and memory and inflammatory response. Conclusion: Our data suggest that WGOS may be beneficial as a medicine or functional food supplement to treat disorders with cognitive deficits and increased inflammation.