• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.10 no.2
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• pp.188-197
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• 2016

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study is to analyze daily kimchi, vegetable and fruit consumption by general characteristics and vegetable and fruit consumption from 1998 to 2012 by the Korean population based on the data of the KNHANES (Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey). SUBJECTS/METHODS: This study is based on the 1998-2012 KNHNES. Analysis data on 54,700 subjects aged 19 years and older were obtained from health behavior interviews and the 24-hour dietary recall method. RESULTS: Daily kimchi consumption and portion size of kimchi decreased significantly from 1998 to 2012 (adjusted P for trend < 0.0001). Meanwhile, daily consumption of both non-salted vegetable and fruit with and without kimchi did not significantly change between 1998 and 2012. Reduced consumption of kimchi, non-salted vegetable, and fruit was observed for both genders as well as daily meal episodes and cooking locations. Male and female subjects with insufficient non-salted vegetable and fruit intake were increased 1.4 times and 1.3 times, respectively, in 2012 than 1998. All subjects consumed at least 400 g/day of non-salted vegetable, fruit, and kimchi in each survey year, although they consumed insufficient amounts (< 400 g/day) of non-salted vegetable and fruit without kimchi. CONCLUSIONS: Since Koreans generally consume high amounts of fermented vegetables, including kimchi, total vegetables and fruit. Consumption of these foods by the Korean adult population reached 400 g, which is the recommended intake of the WCRF/AICR. Based on this result, it is necessary to promote consumption of kimchi in the Korean population and research the development of low sodium kimchi in the future.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.14 no.3
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• pp.242-251
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• 2020

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: This study was conducted to examine disparities in food and nutrient intakes based on family types identified among 1,856 participants who were the Korean elderly people in the 6th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHNES) excluding those who were currently practicing the diet therapy. SUBJECTS/METHODS: We separated the subjects into two groups: living alone (LA, n = 638) and living with a spouse (LS, n = 1,218). We also examined the disparities of dietary quantity and quality of those two groups using complex sampling design general linear regression analyses (CS GLM). RESULTS: In the LA group, there was a higher percentage of females and average age in LA group was higher than the participants in the LS group. Household income and education level were significantly lower in LA compared to those of LS. The frequencies of skipping meals were higher in LA. LA's food and nutrient intakes showed lower consumption of vegetables, fruits, seaweeds, and of most nutrients. Even after adjusting for the confounding factors, the consumption of vegetables, seaweeds, carbohydrates, potassium, riboflavin, and vitamin C showed lower in LA than LS. Moreover, LA's nutrient intake ratios compared to the KDRIs were lower which turned out to be similar to their nutrient intakes. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that dietary behavior and food intake of the elderly are associated with family types. Frequently skipping meals and less dietary variety are more common with elderly persons who were living alone. Therefore, it is necessary to integrate the supplementary food programs and nutrition education programs for the elderly living alone.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.26 no.6
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• pp.467-481
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• 2021

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to examine the biochemical characteristics, intake of energy, and nutrients by household income levels of Korean adolescents aged 12 to 18 years. Methods: Data from the 6th (2013 ~ 2015) Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHNES) were used for the study. A total of 1,839 (966 boys, 873 girls) subjects were included, and they were divided into four income groups according to their household income level. We examined general characteristics (gender, region of residence, skipping or not-skipping breakfast, lunch, dinner, frequency of eating-out), anthropometric characteristics (height, weight, weight status), biochemical characteristics (fasting plasma glucose, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, triglycerides, cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, hemoglobin, and hematocrit), the quantitative intake of energy and nutrients using the Korean Dietary Reference Intakes (KDRI), and the qualitative intake evaluated by the nutrition adequacy ratio (NAR) and mean nutrition adequacy ratio (MAR) of the four groups. Results: There were significant differences by income group within the region of residence and the rate of skipping breakfast, lunch, and dinner. The low-income group had a higher rate of skipping breakfast, lunch, and dinner. According to the income group, there was a difference in the height of boys, and there was no difference in the weight and obesity of boys and girls. In the biochemical characteristics, only the hematocrit of girls showed differences by income group. The quantitative intake of energy and nutrients compared with KDRI differed by income group. There were differences in energy, carbohydrates, proteins, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and phosphorus levels in boys and protein, vitamin A, niacin, and sodium levels in girls. The qualitative intake of energy and nutrients examined using NAR and MAR also differed according to the income group. The NAR showed differences in calcium in boys and vitamin C and calcium in girls. The MAR revealed differences in both boys and girls by income group. Conclusions: Among adolescents in the low-income group, the rate of skipping meals was high, and the quantitative and qualitative intake of energy and some nutrients was low. It is suggested that the nutritional intake can be improved by lowering the rate of skipping breakfast, lunch, dinner. We suggest that even just providing breakfast in schools can be considered highly effective in improving the rate of avoidance of skipping meals and improving nutrient intake. Also, we suggest that it is necessary to improve the food environment, food availability, and food accessibility through national and social support for low-household income adolescents.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.18 no.1
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• pp.77-87
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• 2013

This study was conducted to investigate the nutrient intakes of subjects by quartile of percent energy intake from cooked rice, consumption of cooked rice mixed with multi-grains and to evaluate rice consumption in relation to the risk of metabolic syndrome. The subjects were 5,830 males and females aged between 20~64 years based on 2007-2008 KNHNES data. Levels of percent energy intake from cooked rice were classified into 4 groups (Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 groups: 25% of each) using data of 24-hour recall method from KNHNES. Using medical examination and questionnaire, subjects were classified according to diagnostic criteria of metabolic syndrome. The subjects with higher age, being married, lower education, lower economic level were more likely to take higher percent energy intake from cooked rice. Quartile Q3 of percent energy intake from cooked rice tended to show higher Index of Nutritional Quality (INQ) for fiber, calcium, iron, potassium and vitamin A. INQ of protein, dietary fiber, calcium, thiamin, phosphorus, potassium, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin C by consumption of cooked rice mixed with multi-grains was higher than that by consumption of cooked white rice when adjusted for age. No association with a risk for metabolic syndrome was found for quartile of percent energy intake from cooked rice or cooked rice mixed with multi-grains compared to cooked white rice after adjusting for energy, gender, age, BMI, alcohol, smoking, income and physical activity. In conclusion, consumption of over 54% energy intake from cooked rice or only cooked white rice showed relatively low INQs, but was not associated with a higher risk for metabolic syndrome.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.24 no.4
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• pp.321-330
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• 2019

Objectives: This study examined the relationship between the presence of allergic rhinitis and the nutritional intake levels of Korean infants. Methods: The study involved a total of 1,214 infant subjects aged 1~5 months from the 2013~2016 KNHNES (Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey). The Subjects were classified into two groups based on the presence of allergic rhinitis: Non-allergic rhinitis infants (NARI, n=1,088) and allergic rhinitis infants (ARI, n=126). The general characteristics and family history of allergies, nutrient intake status, nutrient supplement intake, and breast milk and baby food start period data of the two groups were compared. All statistical analyses accounted for the complex sampling design effect and sampling weights. Results: The mean age was 0.5 years old in the ARI group compared to the NARI group. In the residence, the rate of urban was higher in ARI. The family history revealed a significant difference between the two groups, particularly those of mothers rather than fathers. The nutrient intake levels were high in energy, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, iron, riboflavin, niacin, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Breastfeeding was significantly higher in the ARI group than in the NARI group. The baby food start period was 0.3 months earlier in NARI group than in ARI group. The height, body weight, and birth weight were higher in ARI group than NARI group. The result of Odds ratio analysis showed that excess energy, protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron, riboflavin, and niacin intake increases the risk of allergic rhinitis. Conclusions: These results can be used as data to develop nutrition guidelines for allergic rhinitis infants.

• Journal of Korean society of Dental Hygiene
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• v.20 no.4
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• pp.435-445
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• 2020

Objectives: This study investigated the relationship between obesity and dental caries of Korean adolescents. Methods: Data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHNES VI) (2013 to 2015) were used and targeted adolescents aged 13 to 18 years. For statistical analysis, the SPSS 18.0 program was used, and the significance level was set at 0.05. Results: For the general and health-related characteristics, female students (p=0.001) showed higher decayed, missing, and filled teeth (DMFT) index than male students. Furthermore, DMFT showed higher tendency, as age was higher (p<0.001). Smoking (p=0.011) and drinking experience (p=0.027) revealed higher DMFT. The dental caries experience was significantly different among students who were female (p=0.033), older (p=0.001), and overweight or underweight (p=0.022). In the BMI for the general and health-related characteristics, male students had higher obesity rate than female students (p=0.003), and obese subjects had higher dental checkup in the last year (p=0.013). In multiple linear regression analysis of obesity and DMFT, the unadjusted model showed that the obesity group's DMFT was about 0.8 higher than that of the normal group (p=0.024). However, statistical significance was not shown in the adjusted models. In the logistic regression analysis of obesity and dental caries experience, the unadjusted model 1 (1.93 times), the adjusted model 2 (1.79 times), and model 3 (1.76 times) showed significantly higher dental caries experience. Conclusions: Both obesity and dental caries are related to diet habits and lifestyles and have a negative impact on adult health. Therefore, it is necessary to create a healthy social environment around the adolescent, and proper intervention through education is required to form healthy habits.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.14 no.5
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• pp.501-518
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• 2020

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Sodium intake is positively associated with blood pressure, which may increase the risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Therefore, we assessed the disease burden of CVD attributable to sodium intakes above 2,000 mg/day and prospectively investigated the association between dietary/urinary sodium levels and the risk of all-cause and CVD-mortality using the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHNES). SUBJECTS/METHODS: A total of 68,578 and 33,113 participants were included for comparative risk assessment (CRA) analysis and mortality analysis, respectively, and mean follow-up time for mortality was 5.4 years. CRA analysis was used to quantify attributable incidences of stroke, ischemic heart disease (IHD), and deaths attributable to sodium intake between 1998 and 2016. Cox proportional hazard regression model was used to determine the association between sodium intake and all-cause and CVD-mortality. RESULTS: Mean dietary sodium intake decreased over time, reaching 3,647 mg/day in 2016. Similarly, the population attributable fractions of stroke and IHD, and the number of CVD-associated deaths attributable to high sodium intake/excretion also decreased. In terms of association with mortality, when participants were grouped into quartiles (Q) by energy-adjusted sodium intake, those in Q2 had a lower risk of all-cause mortality than those in Q1 with lower intakes. The risk of CVD-associated mortality was higher only in females with high sodium intake in Q4 than those in Q1. CONCLUSIONS: This nationwide data indicates that, in line with previous studies of multiple cohorts, both low and high sodium intakes may be associated with an increased risk of mortality; therefore, the optimal sodium intake for Koreans needs to be revised.

• Journal of Korean society of Dental Hygiene
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• v.21 no.2
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• pp.129-140
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• 2021

Objectives: We sought to evaluate the mitigating effect of using floss and interdental brushes on periodontal health inequality. Methods: This study was based on data acquired from the Seventh Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES VII; 2016-2018). We included 11,359 participants aged ≥19 years in the final analysis. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed using socioeconomic characteristics, health behavior, health status, and periodontitis status. We analyzed differences in the prevalence of periodontitis according to household income stratified by the use of floss and interdental brush. Results: In the multivariable logistic regression model, the lowest income group had 1.304 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.08-1.58) odds ratios for periodontitis than the highest income group. In the interdental brush nonusers or floss nonusers, the lowest income group had significantly higher odds of developing periodontitis. However, we found no significant differences in the periodontitis prevalence between the income groups among the interdental brush users. In the 65-year-old or older group, the same result was observed in the interdental brush and floss users. Conclusions: The results suggest that the use of floss and interdental brushes could alleviate periodontal health inequality.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.54 no.1
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• pp.10-22
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• 2021

Purpose: Key Foods refers to foods that have a high contribution in the nutrient intake of individuals, and exert important effects on their health. This study was undertaken to identify Korean Key Foods, using data from the 7th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHNES). Methods: The data source for the extraction of Key Foods was the 24-hour dietary survey data obtained from the 7th KNHNES (2016-2018), and 21,271 subjects were evaluated. A total of 17 nutrients were selected as the key nutrients for identifying the Key Foods, including energy, carbohydrates, protein, lipid, dietary fiber, calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin C, cholesterol, and sugars. The nutrient consumption approach was applied to generate a list of potential Key Foods. Foods included in 85% of the cumulative intake contribution from one or more key nutrients, were subsequently selected as Key Foods. Results: Of the 1,728 foods consumed by survey respondents, we extracted 728 Key Foods. These Key Foods explained 94% key nutrient intakes of the subjects. Based on the contribution rate to key nutrient intake, the top 10 Key Foods identified were multigrain rice (5.32%), plain white rice (4.23%), milk (3.3%), cabbage kimchi (2.82%), grilled pork belly (1.56%), apples (1.52%), fried eggs (1.49%), cereal (1.36%), instant coffee mix (1.21%), and sweet potatoes (1.12%). These 10 foods accounted for 23.93% total key nutrient intake of the survey respondents. Conclusion: Seven hundred and twenty-eight foods were extracted and identified as the 2020 Korean Key Foods. These Key Foods can be considered the priority foods to be analyzed for establishing a national nutrient database.

• Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society
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• v.17 no.9
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• pp.57-67
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• 2016

This study is designed to investigate the differences of ferritin and hemoglobin levels according to the vitamin D state in 23577 Korean adult subjects by using data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey IV, V. Ferritin and hemoglobin levels are analyzed based on the quintile of vitamin D levels by a generalized linear model. The results of analysis showed that there was a relationship between vitamin D state and hemoglobin levels in females in the reproductive status group (p<0.001). In case of ferritin, there was a relationship with vitamin D state in females in reproductive status group (p<0.001) and males under 65 years old group (p<0.05). Within the male group, high ferritin correlated with low vitamin D state; but in the female group, high ferritin correlated with high vitamin D state. Therefore, it is possible for the ferritin level to be affected by vitamin D state in females in reproductive status group and males under 65 years old group.