• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.18 no.4
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• pp.365-371
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• 2013

High intakes of sodium may increase the risk of hypertension or cardiovascular diseases. According to the 2010 Korea National Health and Nutrition Survey, the average intake of sodium was 4,878 mg/day with salt, kimchi, soy sauce, fermented soybean paste and Ramyeon being the five main sources of sodium. In order to identify solutions to reduce the intake of sodium, we investigated the intake patterns and eating behaviors of Ramyeon among 347 college students (male 146, female 201) using survey questionnaires. The average age of study subjects was 23.7 years for males and 20.5 years for females. The average Body Mass Index ($kg/m^2$) was 21.9 for males and 20.1 for females. The average frequency of Ramyeon intake was 2.0 times/week. The main reason for eating Ramyeon was convenience (56%), followed by good taste (27%), low price (11%) and other reasons (9%). The criteria for choosing Ramyeon were taste (72%), convenience (14%), price (7%), nutrition (1%), and the other factors (2%). Males' average intake of Ramyeon soup (61%) was higher than that of the females (36%). The estimated intake of Ramyeon soup by survey showed a positive correlation with the measured intake of Ramyeon soup. Sodium contents of Ramyeon were measured separately for the noodles and the soup, which were 1,185 mg/serving and 1,148 mg/serving each. Therefore, the amount of sodium intake can be reduced if students eat less Ramyeon soup. Also, we observed that dietary behaviors and soup intakes of Ramyeon between the sexes were different. Appropriate nutritional education for proper eating habits may help decrease the intake of sodium.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.40 no.sup
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• pp.9-21
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• 2007

This study aimed to assess the total sugar intake for Korean and to identify major food sources contributing to those food components. Korean adults aged over 20 years old from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2001 and 2002 were selected. The data were analyzed to obtain nationally and seasonally representative information on the health and nutritional status of the Korean. Forty food groups were used in identifying food sources of total sugar and energy intake. Total sugar contents of foods in the KNHANES data sets were estimated by food code matching technique with Release 18 of the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference. Sample weighted means, standard errors, and population percentages were calculated using SAS and SUDAAN. The mean total sugar intake of the Korean was 60.3g in 2001, 40.9g in spring 2002, 45.7g in summer 2002, and 52.1g in fall 2002, which were 30-44% of intake of US people. Fresh fruit was identified as the most significant food source for total sugar intake in Korean population in all age groups and all seasons. The next major food sources following fresh fruits were candy/jelly/syrup/honey, coffee/coffee caream, vegetables, Kimchi, soft drinks, milk, fruit juice, cookie/cracker/cake, and vegetable juice/grain juice, which showed similar results through the seasons. While carbonated soft drink was the most significant food sources for total sugar or added sugar intakes for US people. The total sugar intakes were significantly higher in women, higher educational level, and residing in metropolitan area. As intake of total sugar increased, intakes of protein, fiber, calcium, phosphorus, iron, Vit A, B1, B2, C, niacin showed significantly increased, while high intakes of added sugars showed low intakes of some micronutrients in the US people. Percentages of people who consumed nutrients below EAR were less in higher total sugar intake group than in lower intake group. From these results, we can conclude that the food consumption habits including the total sugar intake of Korean people seems relatively good so far. More reliable database of total sugar and added sugar composition tables in public domain should be established in the future, and also more researches about total sugar and added sugar for Koreans should be continued.

• Korean journal of food and cookery science
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• v.15 no.1
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• pp.81-94
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• 1999

As the elderly population has increased in the advanced countries, food intake, relationship of nutrient intake and disease has become major problem in the aged. To investigate the dietary behaviors and the preference of food of the elderly for developing meal planning, the study was conducted through survey questionnaires including 24-hr dietary recall, dietary behaviors, food preference and frequency of food intake to 352 elderly (104 male and 248 female) who were more than 60 years old and living in Seoul. Most of subjects ate three meals regulary and the most preferred taste was sweet and the less preferred taste was sour. Dietary behaviors according to educational level were shown that the skipping meal time and duration time of one meal were significant difference in educational level. Most of the elderly subjects like kimchi and soybean paste soup. The more educated elderly were preferred milk. The reason of dislike of milk was bad flavor and diarrhea. Most of them who graduated from university and high school selected fishes because of good for health primary, otherwise no educated, elementary school and middle school graduated elderly selected vegetables primary. Meats, fishes, seaweeds, mushrooms, fruits, milk and milk products, eggs and vegetables intakes of total elderly subjects were significantly positively related to educational level. With respect to milk and milk products intakes, cheese, yogurt (curd) and milk intake of elderly was significantly negatively related to age. Therefore education for developing desirable dietary behaviors and improving the meal patterns should be in forced to elderly, especially who had poor educational background in order to manage the meal planning and to care for their health in the later life.

• The Korean Journal of Food And Nutrition
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• v.23 no.4
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• pp.531-541
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• 2010

The purpose of this study was to analyze the dietary habits and food intake by age, based on the nutrition counseling data of medical health examination. The subjects were 5,511 adults(3,139 males and 2,372 females) who took comprehensive medical test in Gyeonggi area, and they were evaluated from January 1, 2007 to December 31, 2007. Survey samples were divided by age groups : 30>, 30~39, 40~49, 50~59, 60~69, 70{$\leq}$ years. The subjects were composed of 57% male and 43% female. The results showed that the dietary habits of ${\geq}$50 group were relatively good. On the other hand, in 30> yrs group had more dietary habit problems, they had irregular meals and the ratio of skipping breakfast was high. And they frequently had meals out. regularity of meals, eating breakfast was higher in ${\geq}$70 yrs groups than in other groups(p<0.001). frequency of overeating was higher in 30>, 30~39${\geq}$yrs groups than in other groups(p<0.001) and speed of eating meal were fast in 50~59 yrs groups than in other groups(p<0.01). For foods with high cholesterol and fat, it was shown that the older the subject, the fewer the frequency of consumption(p<0.001). For kimchi and salty foods, food intake showed a negative relationship with age(p<0.001), whereas for fresh vegetables and high-calcium fish, it showed a positive relationship(p<0.001). All in all, it was shown that as the people get older, their dietary habits tend to get more appropriate. In conclusion nutrition education based on their dietary habit by age should be taught, so that people have a healthy dietary habit and food intake for the rest of their life.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.11 no.1
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• pp.1-8
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• 1978

Ninety-three weaning children, 8-36 Mo. old wererandomly selected from rural areas of South Korea. Food and nutrient intake level were measured by the weighing-interview method for two consecutive days in December 1976. Their weaning pattern, dietary pattern, food and nutrient intake level were analyzed. A brief summary of 4he finding follows; 1) 80% of the rural children completed the weaning by the age of 24 months. 2) 44% of 8-12 month olds were living only on breast mil while the rest of the age group received regularly a supplementary food. 3) Over half of the 8-36 Mo old children investigated were receiving the same dietary pattern, arbitrarily called 'Diet K'. Diet K consists of rice-Kimchi-seasoning-oil which is the basic components of an average Korean adult diet. This very composition of the diet K and no other variety of food included inevitably result in low intake of vitamin A, iron, calcium and riboflavin for the children. 4) The weaning children were found to be taking all nutrients except niacin in amount far from sufficient to recommended level. Particularly low were the intakes of good quality protein, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin and vitamin C which met only 15%-37% of the recommended level for 12-36 Mo. olds. 5) It was concluded that majority of the rural children of weaning age in Korea are given the simple diet K and feeding the weaning children only with the basic dietary pattern of adults can not meet the nutritional requirements. This is a part of the study supported by the ROKG/USAID Health Planning Project.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.43 no.2
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• pp.141-151
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• 2010

Gestational age and infant birth weight are influenced by gestational weight gain. This study was aimed to examine the effects of gestational weight gain on pregnancy outcomes. Pregnant women were recruited at two hospitals in Seoul area. Characteristics and dietary intakes of pregnant women were obtained using 24-hour recall questionnaires. Gestational weight gain was categorized as less (Under-gain) than, within (Recommended gain), or greater (Over-gain) than the Institute of Medicine guidelines. Maternal height and pre-pregnancy weight in the over-gain group significantly higher than under-gain and recommended gain group. Mini dietary assessment score of eating bean has significantly higher in under-gain group than recommended gain group and eating kimchi has significantly higher in undergain group than over-gain group. Score of eating fruit was significantly higher in over-gain group than other groups. The mean intake of carbohydrate in the recommended gain group were significantly higher than under-gain group, and mean intake of potassium in the over-gain group were significantly higher than under-gain group. Under-gain group showed the high rate of the preterm delivery and low birth weight infant delivery. However recommended gain group showed 46% reduced risk of preterm delivery (OR = 0.54 CI = 0.30-0.98). Risk of macrosomia increased with increasing gestational weight gain (p for trend < 0.05). In conclusion, pregnancy outcomes were influenced by gestational weight gain. Therefore, these finding suggested adequate gestational weight gain according to BMI for reducing the risk of preterm delivery, low birth weight and macrosomia.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.17 no.6
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• pp.752-771
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• 2012

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of sodium reduction education program of a public health center on the blood pressure, blood biochemical profile and sodium intake of hypertensive adults. The program continued for 16 weeks with an 8-week nutrition education and an 8-week follow-up to forty two subjects, 6 males and 36 females aged 46 to 80 years. Subjects received nutrition education including lectures, activities, cooking classes and nutrition counseling. Physical fitness, management of stress, and nutrition counseling were provided during the follow-up. The program was evaluated three times, before and after the nutrition education, and after the follow-up. Systolic blood pressure (p < 0.0001) and diastolic blood pressure (p < 0.001) were decreased after completion of the program. Body weight (p < 0.005), percent body fat (p < 0.005) and body mass index (p < 0.001) were decreased, too. There were no significant differences in blood glucose, HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides, while elevated levels of total cholesterol (p < 0.001) and LDL-cholesterol (p < 0.001) appeared after the program completion. Decreased intakes of vitamin A (p < 0.05), ${\beta}$-carotene (p < 0.001) and sodium (p < 0.001) were observed. Consumption frequency of noodles, soups, stews, kimchi, fishes/shellfish, seasoned vegetables, and salted seafoods/pickles (p < 0.05~p < 0.001) were decreased, while that of all food groups were not changed during the follow-up. Total score of nutrition knowledge related to sodium intake and hypertension (p < 0.001), and that of dietary behavior associated with high sodium intakes were changed positively (p < 0.001) only during the nutrition education. This sodium reduction education program, including the follow-up study showed positive effects on the blood pressure, sodium intake, nutrition knowledge and dietary behavior of hypertensive adults.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.55 no.5
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• pp.558-571
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• 2022

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to analyze the dietary intake of Korean adults with atopic dermatitis (AD) to determine whether the risk of developing AD was related to their diet. Methods: Among the participants in the 7th National Health and Nutrition Survey (2016 to 2018), 10,571 adults aged 19-64 were divided into AD (AD group, n = 366) and control groups (non-AD group, n = 10,205) to compare and analyze their nutrient intake status and Korean Healthy Eating Index (KHEI) score. Depending on the prevalence of AD, the nutrient intake, nutrient intake per 1,000 kcal, acceptable macronutrient distribution range, and KHEI score were tested for significance by correcting for age, sex, body mass index, education, marriage, occupation, residence area, physical activity, and energy intake variables that were derived for confounding factors. Results: The acceptable macronutrient distribution range for protein was lower in the AD group than in the non-AD group. Comparing the nutrient intake per 1,000 kcal, the intakes of protein, phosphorus, iron, and potassium of the AD group were significantly lower than those of the non-AD group. In the KHEI, the scores of total vegetables, vegetables excluding kimchi and pickles, meat, fish, eggs, and legumes of the AD group were significantly lower than those of the non-AD group. In addition, as these food intake scores increased, the risk of AD significantly decreased. Conclusion: In conclusion, adult AD patients had low intakes of vegetables, meat, fish, eggs, and legumes, and it was confirmed that high intakes of these foods may be associated with low AD risk. Therefore, we suggest that an adequate intake of vegetables and foods containing protein would be necessary for the management and treatment of AD in adults.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.11 no.5
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• pp.661-672
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• 2006

This study was performed to determine the dietary risk factors associated with hypertension. The hypertensive group were composed of 112 hypertensive patients (male 53, female 59) who first visited the hypertension clinic and had been diagnosed as having primary hypertension ($SBP{\ge}140mmHg\;or\;DBP{\ge}90mmHg$). The regular visitors or the subjects on special diets or medical therapies were excluded. The normal group consisted of as subjects (male 41, female 54) matched with age and socioeconomic levels. The subjects having higher intakes (above the 75 percentile) in energy, protein, iron, vitamin A or C showed significantly higher hypertension risk estimated with odds ratio after the covariance factors (age, sex and BMI) were adjusted. More than 2400 mg of sodium (6 g of salt) intake was associated with significantly higher risk of hypertension (odds ratio: 1.773, CI: 1.014-3.014 for $SBP{\ge}140mmHg$; odds ratio: 2.373, CI: 1.359-4.215 for $DBP{\ge}90mmHg$). Hypertensive group showed significantly increased intakes of vegetables and fish and shell fish compared to the normal group. When the vegetable intakes were classified into Kimchi, fresh vegetables and cooked vegetables with seasoning, the hypertensive group was observed as having higher intakes of Kimchi and cooked vegetables with seasoning. The intakes of highest quartile for vegetables (${\ge}327g/day$) (odds ratio: 3.164, CI: 1.740-5.752), fish and their products (${\ge}102g/day$) (odds ratio: 2.756, CI: 1.486-5.109), grains(${\ge}311g/day$) (odds ratio 2.393, CI: 1.186-4.832), meats and their product (${\ge}106g$) (odds ratio: 2.210, CI: 1.225 - 3.987) compared to the lower were significantly associated with the higher risk of hypertension estimated with DBP (${\ge}90mmHg$) after covariance factors were adjusted. In conclusion, our findings confirm that higher intake of energy or sodium are associated with the increased risk of hypertension. Because increased intake of vegetable or fish was associated with the higher risk of hypertension, in contrast with the finding of western countries, choosing or preparation of vegetables or fish with reduced salt is recommended.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition
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• v.32 no.8
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• pp.1408-1413
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• 2003

This study was conducted to analyze manganese contents of Korean common foods. Contents of manganese in 30 foods were analyzed by ICP spectrometer. And daily manganese intake through 30 common foods was calculated using analysis data of this study and daily food intakes cited from report on 1998 national health and nutrition survey. The average manganese contents of foods analyzed were 949.6 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for rice, 236.1 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for Korean chinese cabbage kimchi, 27.2 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for citrus fruit, 2.6 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for milk, 214.6 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for radish root, 40.0 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for apple, 60.4 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for persimmon, 13.9 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for pork, 9.5 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for beef, 638.3 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for soybean curd, 184.0 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for radish kimchi, 56.0 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for pear, 18.4 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for beer, 11.3 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for egg, 9.5 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for carbonated beverage, 345.0 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for bread, 50.7 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for soju, 270.3 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for potato, 236.1 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for sweet potato, 91.2 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for ramyeon, 32.5 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for onion, 68.0 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for nabak kimchi, 538.2 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for soybean sprout, 112.5 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for welsh onion, 336.7 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for rice cake, 589.9 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for Korean chinese cabbage, 430.4 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for somyeon, 144.3 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for pumpkin, 3.0 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for yoghurt, and 614.4 $\mu\textrm{g}$ for spinach per 100 g of each food. The daily manganese intake through 30 common foods of Koreans in 1998 was 3420.7 $\mu\textrm{g}$. Major sources of dietary manganese were rice, kimchi, and soybean curd. Especially, rice supplied 68.1% of total dietary manganese intake through 30 common foods. Further studies are required to establish database and RDA of manganese.