• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.13 no.10
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• pp.1394-1398
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• 2000

This experiment was carried out to examine the seasonal changes in feed intake and feeding behavior in Korean spotted deer under farmed condition to obtain basic information for efficient feeding management. The seasonal daily gain was the highest (p<0.05) in summer and the lowest (p<0.05) in winter. Dry matter intake (DMI) was the highest (p<0.05) in spring (2,685 g/day) and the lowest in winter (1,929 g/day). Intake of roughage in the DMI was the greatest in spring and that in winter was significantly lower (p<0.05) than in spring. Also DMI, expressed in terms of metabolic body weight ($kgW^{0.75}$), was 85.5 g, 70.6 g, 70.9 g and 65.1 g for spring, summer, autumn and winter, respectively, and thus was the highest in spring and the lowest in winter (p<0.05). Deer exhibited similar eating patterns, comparatively short and frequent periods, in all seasons. They showed comparatively intensive patterns of rumination during midnight for autumn and winter and relatively continuous patterns of chewing activity during spring and summer. There were no significant differences in seasonal eating time and ruminating time. However, exercise time was the greatest for winter and the lowest for summer and there was a significant difference (p<0.05) between summer and winter. Although not significant, eating time per 100 gDM ingested tended to be short in spring and summer and long in autumn and winter. Ruminating time per 100 gDM ingested was the shortest (p<0.05) in spring compared with in other seasons. The conclusion can be drawn that since deer have seasonal differences in feed intake and feeding habits, it is necessary to establish and develop an efficient feeding system for deer.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.19 no.12
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• pp.1737-1741
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• 2006

The aim of this study was to provide basic information to allow improved nutritional management for velvet production by investigating the effects of dietary protein levels on dry matter intake and production and chemical composition of velvet antler in spotted deer (Cervus nippon). Twenty-four spotted deer stags were assigned to 4 unreplicated groups, Control (15% CP in diet, higher dry matter), CP10 (10% CP), CP15 (15% CP) and CP20 (20% CP). The velvet antlers were harvested from each stag on the 55th day after casting of the buttons from the previous set, measured for their size and weight, and the chemical composition of each antler was determined in three sections (top, middle, and base). Dry matter (DMI) and crude protein (CPI) intake were highest (p<0.05) for the Control and increased progressively (p<0.05) with increasing dietary protein level. Although not significant, mean length and girth of the main antler beam tended to be larger in either left or right beam with increasing protein level in the diet, longest in CP20 and shortest in CP10. Velvet antler production was lowest in CP10 and highest in CP20, which differed significantly (p<0.05). Only negligible differences were found between groups in chemical composition. It is concluded that dietary protein clearly influenced dry matter intake and velvet antler production, whereas there was comparatively little effect of dietary protein on chemical composition of antler in spotted deer.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.16 no.3
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• pp.435-444
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• 2003

In 1957, Schwarz and Foltz discovered that selenium (Se) was an essential trace mineral and nutritionists then started extensive studies to figure out the metabolic function of this element which has been called as toxic mineral. The discovery that glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) contained Se demonstrated a biochemical role for Se as an essential trace element. The major physiological function of Se containing GSH-Px is thought to maintain low levels of $H_2O_2$ and other hydroperoxides in the cell to prevent tissues from peroxidation damages. It is known that the GSH-Px activity is increased when animals were fed high dietary levels of Se. Chemical properties of Se have much in common with sulfur (S) therefore Se would follow the sulfur pathways in its metabolism in animal body. Two sources of Se are available for supplementation of Se in animal feed. Inorganic Se can also exist in selenide (-2), elemental (0), selenite (+4) and selenate (+6) oxidation state with other minerals. When sulfur in S containing amino acids is replaced by Se, organic Se can be made and named "eleno"prior to the name of S containing amino acid, i.e. selenomethionine. Selenium deficiency affects humans as well as animals and dysfunctions such as exudative diathesis, retained placenta, mastitis, liver necrosis, Keshan disease, numerous diseases and cancer. From several centuries ago, Se toxicity was recognized in various animal species and much of the current toxic Se levels has been established largely based upon the controlled toxicity studies used inorganic Se. Toxic effects of Se in animal result in reduced feed intake, growth retardation, ataxia, diarrhea, alopecia and sloughing of hooves. However, several experiments demonstrated that Se deficiencies or toxicities were varied by dietary Se levels and sources. Recent studies demonstrated that the incidence of colorectal and prostate cancer was reduced by approximately 50% when humans consumed 200 ${\mu}g$ of Se daily.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.7 no.3
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• pp.441-448
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• 1994

Postweaning performance data were obtained on 187 group fed purebred Angus calves from 12 selected sires (six high and six low feed conversion sires) in 1985 and 1986. The objective of this portion of the study was to develop prediction equations for feed conversion from a stepwise regression analysis. Variables measured were on-test weight (ONTSTWT), on-test age (ONTSTAG), five weights by 28-d periods, seven linear body measurements: heart girth (HG), hip height (HH), head width (HDW), head length (HDL), muzzle circumference (MC), length between hooks and pins (HOPIN) and length between shoulder and hooks (SHHO), and backfat thickness (BF). Stepwise regressions for maintenance adjusted feed conversion (ADJFC) and unadjusted feed conversion (UNADFC) over the first 140 d of the test, and total feed conversion (FC) until progeny reached 8.89 mm of back fat were obtained separately by conversion groups and sexes and for combined feed conversion groups and sexes. In general, weights were more important than linear body measurements in prediction of feed utilization. To some extent this was expected as weight is related directly to gain which is a component of feed conversion. Weight at 112 d was the most important variable in prediction of feed conversion when data from both feed conversion groups and sexes were combined. Weights at 84 and 140 d were important variables in prediction of UNADFC and FC, respectively, of bulls. ONTSTWT and weight at 140 d had the highest standardized partial regression coefficients for UNADFC and ADJFC, respectively, of heifers. Results indicated that linear measurements, such as MC, HDL and HOPIN, are useful in prediction of feed conversion when feed in takes are unavailable.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.7 no.3
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• pp.435-440
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• 1994

Postweaning performance data were obtained on 401 group fed purebred Angus calves from 24 selected sires (12 high and 12 low feed conversion sires) from 1983 through 1986 at the Northwestern Branch of the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center. The objective of this study was to determine the interrelationships between body measurements and 140-d feed conversion (feed/gain) adjusted for maintenance (ADJFC), 140-d feed conversion unadjusted for maintenance (UNADFC) and feed conversion measured until progeny reached 8.89 mm of backfat (FC). Variables measured at the completion of the 140-d postweaning period included hip peight (HH), chest depth (CD), chest width (CW), head width (HDW), head length (HDL), heart girth (HG), muzzle circumference (MC), backfat thickness (BF), length between hooks aod pins (HOPIN) and length between shoulder and hooks (SHHO). Measurements were taken from progeny born from 1983 through 1986 for HH and BF, while others, except chest measurements (CD and CW), which were available only in 1985, were taken from progeny born in 1985 and 1986. Negative phenotypic correlations were found for UNADFC, ADJFC and FC. respectively, with HG (-0.76, -0.65 and -0.85), HOPIN (-0.05, -0.28 and -0.09), HDL (-0.63, -0.66 and -0.57), MC (-0.12, -0.35 and - 0.25), HH (-0.38, -0.29 and -0.001), BF(-0.29, -0.31 and -0.12) and CW (-0.03, -0.35 and -0.58). In general, fatter animals with larger HG, longer HDL and greater MC had better feed conversion.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.13 no.1
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• pp.31-38
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• 2000

This study was conducted to evaluate changes in the lysine to digestible energy (DE) ratio on performance, apparent ileal and fecal nutrient digestibilities as well as blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and to estimate optimal lysine:DE ratios for growing pigs of different sexes. A total of 150 pigs ($(Landrace{\times}Yorkshire){\times}Duroc$, 16.78 kg average body weight, 75 barrows and 75 gilts) was randomly allotted into a $2{\times}3$ (sex by diet) factorial design. Three diets were formulated to contain a crude protein level of 19%, a DE level of 3.5 Mcal/kg with three lysine:DE ratios of 3.2 (low), 3.5 (middle) and 3.8 (high) g lysine/Mcal DE per kg diet for both barrows and gilts throughout the study. With increasing dietary lysine:DE ratio, the average daily gain (ADG) of barrows decreased but there was no significant difference among treatments (p>0.05). However, ADG was significantly higher in gilts fed the diet containing the high lysine:DE ratio (p<0.05), followed by the middle and low lysine:DE ratio dietary groups. No significant effects of lysine:DE ratios on feed intake (ADFI) and feed conversion (F/G) were observed for barrows and gilts during overall period (p>0.05), while the optimal F/G was found in barrows fed diets of low and in gilts fed high lysine:DE ratio. Blood urea nitrogen had a positive relationship with growth rate. The results showed that the optimal lysine:DE ratios were 3.2 and 3.8 g lysine/Mcal DE per kg diet for barrows and gilts of 16 to 57 kg body weight, respectively.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.13 no.11
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• pp.1638-1652
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• 2000

Prolific females require better nutrition and feeding practice because of larger litter size and the substantial decline in body fat. Life-time pig output will be compromised if body protein and fat are not properly managed. First litter females are especially vulnerable because they can loose ${\geq}15%$ of whole-body protein. Conservation of body protein mass during first lactation minimizes wean to estrus interval and increases second litter size (up to 1.2 pigs). The ability to influence litter-size by amino acid nutrition is a new dimension in our understanding. A P2 fat depth below 12 mm at farrow and below 10 mm at wean compromised wean to estrus interval (>2 d) and next litter size (0.5 to 1.5 pigs) in sows. It is now clear that a 'modest' excess of feed during the first 72 h of pregnancy decreases embryo viability so that the potential for an increased litter size at birth is not realized. The capacity for milk production by prolific young sows is 25% higher than the standard used previously (NRC, 1988). First litter females averaged 9.82 kg milk/d for a 21 d lactation. Second and third litter counterparts averaged 10.35 kg/d. Milk production was 95% of peak by 10 d of lactation and sows were in greatest negative energy and lysine balance during the first 6 d. Nearly 45% of the total loss in body protein occurred within the first 6 d, but this could reduced to 30-35% by using a more aggressive feeding strategy after parturition. There appear to be 2 phases in lactation for lysine need (d 2-12 vs 12-21). Feeding to the higher level alleviates the second litter size decline. The lysine requirement for lactation can be predicted with accuracy, but we are not able to predict the second limiting amino acid. Mammary uptake of valine relative to lysine and recent work with practical diets suggest that the recent NRC (1998) pattern is realistic and that threonine and valine could be co-limiting for corn-soy diets for prolific sows nursing 10-11 pigs. Empirical studies are needed to refine the ideal pattern so that synthetic lysine can be used with more confidence. Milk fat output for the elite sow is extraordinary and poses an unnecessarily high energetic cost. Methods that reduce mammary fat synthesis will benefit the sow and may enhance piglet growth.

• Journal of Animal Science and Technology
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• v.45 no.1
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• pp.79-86
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• 2003

To determine nutritive value and suitability of deep-stacked broiler litter for deer, the influence of supplementary levels of broiler litter on digestibility, dry matter intake, and nitrogen balance was investigated in male spotted deer (Cervus nippon) fed a commercial mixed(complete) ration. The deep-stacked and ground broiler litter was supplemented at the level of 0%(Control), 15%(T1) and 30%(T2) on the basis of fresh matter to the mixed ration. All treatments had similar palatability at about 3% body weight of dry matter intake. Dry matter digestibility was highest in Control and lowest in T2(P<0.05). Digestibility of crude protein was lowest(P<0.05) in T2. Dry matter and digestible dry matter intake was similar in all treatments. Daily body weight gain was not affected by treatments. Feeding 15 or 30% of broiler litter to male deer resulted in similar nitrogen intake, fecal nitrogen excretion and daily nitrogen retention(g/d), compared with feeding Control. These results suggest that up to 30% of broiler litter may be fed to male deer without deleterious effects on deer performance.

• Journal of The Korean Society of Grassland and Forage Science
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• v.19 no.2
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• pp.105-114
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• 1999

This experiment was carried out to determine seeding rate and planting date effects on the forage performance and quality of winter rye(Secale cereale L.) at Suweon in 1997 and 1998. The experiment was arranged in a spilt plot design with three replications. Main plots consisted of three seeding rates; 100, 150, and 200kg/ha. Sub-plots consisted of four planting dates; 5 September, 20 September, 5 October and 20 October. The first heading date of rye was not strongly influenced by planting dates. On a day basis, a 1:15 ratio was existed between heading and planting dates of rye, as a 1-day delay in spring heading date for each 15-day delay in fall planting date. Dry matter content of rye for a seeding rate of 200kg/ha was the lowest of 13.6%, and that for the planting dates was decreased to 15.2, 14.2, 14.3, and 13.8% with delayed seeding (P<0.05). There was an interaction between seeding rate and planting date in dry matter content of rye(P<0.01). Acid detergent fiber (ADF) percentage of rye for the seeding rates was not significant and that for the planting dates was decreased to 32.1, 31.6, 31.6, and 29.3%, as the planting was delayed(P<0.05). There was an interaction between seeding rate and planting date for ADF. Effect of seeding rate and planting date on neutral detergent fiber(NDF) of rye was similar to the observations made on ADF. Crude protein content of rye for the seeding rates was not significant, but that for the planting dates was increased to 17.3, 17.7, 18.2, and 18.9%, as the planting was delayed(P<0.05). In vitro dry matter digestibility(IVDMD) of rye for the seeding rates was not significant, but that for the planting dates was increased to 77.5, 80.6, 80.9, and 80.9%, as the planting was delayed(P<0.05). Dry matter yield of rye for a seeding rate of 100 kg/ha was the highest of 9,059 kg/ha, and that for a seeding rate of 200 kg/ha was the lowest of 7,647 kg/ha(P<0.01). In this experiment, the highest forage yield(8,945 kg/ha) was obtained when planting was completed by early October(5 October), with yield decreased as planting was delayed until 20 October (7,249 kg/ha)(P<0.01). This trend was also observed for the crude protein(CP) and in vitro digestible dry matter(IVDDM) yields of rye. A significant interaction between seeding rate and planting date for the dry matter yield was occurred(P<0.01). Based on the results of this experiment, it appears that the forage dry matter yield of rye could be enhanced by sowing from 20 September to 5 October under upland condition in the middle plain area of Korea. The seeding rates from 100 to 150 kg/ha and that of 200 kg/ha would be suitable for the early-fall and late fall sowing, respectively.

• Journal of The Korean Society of Grassland and Forage Science
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• v.19 no.3
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• pp.203-210
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• 1999

Of all the nutrients in liquid manure, N has the greatest potential both for the environment and for increasing forage yields. This experiment was carried out to determine the effect of different types and N rates of liquid manure on mineral content and nitrate-N of oats(Avena sativa L.), soil chemical characteristics in Suweon. Seven treatments consisting of chemical fertilizer $120kg\;N\;ha^{-1}$, liquid cattle manure 120, 240 and $360kg\;N\;ha^{-1}$, liquid swine manure 120, 240 and $360kg\;N\;ha^{-1}$ were arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Compared with the plot of chemical fertilizer, increasing liquid manure N rates increased mineral contents of oats. Nitrate-N contents of oats were ranged from 1,881 to $2,605mg\;kg^{-1}$ in all treatments, which was orderly ranked as chemical fertilizer>liquid cattle manure $360kg\;N\;ha^{-1}$> liquid swine manure $240kg\;N\;ha^{-1}$. Contents of exchangeable cation of the soil were appeared to be higher with increasing liquid manure N rates. Amount of total-N and inorganic-N in soil affected by increasing liquid manure N rates, and there was the highest at liquid swine manure $360kg\;N\;ha^{-1}$ among the treatments. Nitrate-N concentration in infiltration water was not remarkably variable during the experimental period. Based on the results of this experiment, it is suggested that the amount of nitrogen in soil was orderly ranked as liquid swine manure $360kg\;N\;ha^{-1}$, followed by liquid swine manure $240kg\;N\;ha^{-1}$.