Literature review on maternal-fetal interaction (모-태아 상호작용에 대한 문헌고찰)
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- Korean Parent-Child Health Journal
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- v.3 no.2
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- pp.49-66
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- 2000
Pregnancy is a task of creation in which a women mobilizes her self and the resources available to her in the generation of a new person. Through the pregnancy, a mother has formed the new human relationship with a fetus. Maternal-fetal relationship is considered one of mechanism making the relationship of mother and child. It is important to well-being of mother and fetus, too. The earliest interaction between a mother and her child is during prenatal period. Maternal-fetal dyad is unique and perceived interactions with the fetus make the pregnancy real for the mother. Maternal behavior is "instinctive" and is formed in early childhood by copy of the mother. But, Rubin argues that this behavior is an open intellectual system rather than a prepackaged bundle of traits. There is openness to new learning and a high value placed on knowing which occurs with silent organization in thought. Thus, nurses and other health professionals provide prenatal care that optimally is part of the environment in which the maternal-fetal dyad develops. Thus it is appropriate for nurses to increases their understanding of the dyad and to explore ways to enhance its development. This study focusses on the interaction ability and response of fetus, and the maternal-fetal interaction. The research of fetal responses that involve physiological changes and motor movement have been shown to coccur to both external sensory stimuli and to maternal emotional states. The fetus does also have sensory capacity to be aware of some maternal behaviors, and the motor ability to respond in a way the mother can notice. Thus, very rudimentary interactions appear to be possible. Maternal awareness of fetal activity was supported by several studies. More interesting to the present study are description of maternal-fetal interaction and the finding that there appear to be levels of sensitivity to the fetus involved in maternal-fetal interactions. First, recognition comes that the fetus is separate from the maternal self. Next, the fetus engages in. Lastly, the parent may describe active interaction with the fetus, believing that mother and fetus are communicating on a meaningful level. Several interventions, developed to promote more active interaction between mother and fetus, have been reviewed. In general, the parents were taught to stimulate the fetus and to notice the fetus' responses. This type of intervention might increase the mother's sensitivity to her unborn baby, and she may have a head start toward learning how to res pond sensitivity to the newborn infant. Research In the area of maternal-fetal interaction is scarce. Sensitive behavior is construed as an appropriate and timely response to a signal of need from another person, but no such signal of need can be claimed regarding the fetus. The highest level of maternal-fetal interaction, therefore, might be based more on maternal representations of the imagined fetus than on factual evidence of fetal participation.
This article provides training exercises for executives into interpreting subroutine maps of executives' thinking in processing business and industrial marketing problems and opportunities. This study builds on premises that Schank proposes about learning and teaching including (1) learning occurs by experiencing and the best instruction offers learners opportunities to distill their knowledge and skills from interactive stories in the form of goal.based scenarios, team projects, and understanding stories from experts. Also, (2) telling does not lead to learning because learning requires action-training environments should emphasize active engagement with stories, cases, and projects. Each training case study includes executive exposure to decision system analysis (DSA). The training case requires the executive to write a "Briefing Report" of a DSA map. Instructions to the executive trainee in writing the briefing report include coverage in the briefing report of (1) details of the essence of the DSA map and (2) a statement of warnings and opportunities that the executive map reader interprets within the DSA map. The length maximum for a briefing report is 500 words-an arbitrary rule that works well in executive training programs. Following this introduction, section two of the article briefly summarizes relevant literature on how humans think within contexts in response to problems and opportunities. Section three illustrates the creation and interpreting of DSA maps using a training exercise in pricing a chemical product to different OEM (original equipment manufacturer) customers. Section four presents a training exercise in pricing decisions by a petroleum manufacturing firm. Section five presents a training exercise in marketing strategies by an office furniture distributer along with buying strategies by business customers. Each of the three training exercises is based on research into information processing and decision making of executives operating in marketing contexts. Section six concludes the article with suggestions for use of this training case and for developing additional training cases for honing executives' decision-making skills. Todd and Gigerenzer propose that humans use simple heuristics because they enable adaptive behavior by exploiting the structure of information in natural decision environments. "Simplicity is a virtue, rather than a curse". Bounded rationality theorists emphasize the centrality of Simon's proposition, "Human rational behavior is shaped by a scissors whose blades are the structure of the task environments and the computational capabilities of the actor". Gigerenzer's view is relevant to Simon's environmental blade and to the environmental structures in the three cases in this article, "The term environment, here, does not refer to a description of the total physical and biological environment, but only to that part important to an organism, given its needs and goals." The present article directs attention to research that combines reports on the structure of task environments with the use of adaptive toolbox heuristics of actors. The DSA mapping approach here concerns the match between strategy and an environment-the development and understanding of ecological rationality theory. Aspiration adaptation theory is central to this approach. Aspiration adaptation theory models decision making as a multi-goal problem without aggregation of the goals into a complete preference order over all decision alternatives. The three case studies in this article permit the learner to apply propositions in aspiration level rules in reaching a decision. Aspiration adaptation takes the form of a sequence of adjustment steps. An adjustment step shifts the current aspiration level to a neighboring point on an aspiration grid by a change in only one goal variable. An upward adjustment step is an increase and a downward adjustment step is a decrease of a goal variable. Creating and using aspiration adaptation levels is integral to bounded rationality theory. The present article increases understanding and expertise of both aspiration adaptation and bounded rationality theories by providing learner experiences and practice in using propositions in both theories. Practice in ranking CTSs and writing TOP gists from DSA maps serves to clarify and deepen Selten's view, "Clearly, aspiration adaptation must enter the picture as an integrated part of the search for a solution." The body of "direct research" by Mintzberg, Gladwin's ethnographic decision tree modeling, and Huff's work on mapping strategic thought are suggestions on where to look for research that considers both the structure of the environment and the computational capabilities of the actors making decisions in these environments. Such research on bounded rationality permits both further development of theory in how and why decisions are made in real life and the development of learning exercises in the use of heuristics occurring in natural environments. The exercises in the present article encourage learning skills and principles of using fast and frugal heuristics in contexts of their intended use. The exercises respond to Schank's wisdom, "In a deep sense, education isn't about knowledge or getting students to know what has happened. It is about getting them to feel what has happened. This is not easy to do. Education, as it is in schools today, is emotionless. This is a huge problem." The three cases and accompanying set of exercise questions adhere to Schank's view, "Processes are best taught by actually engaging in them, which can often mean, for mental processing, active discussion."
This study is designed to analyze the problems of health education in schools and explore the ways of enhancing health education from a historical perspective. It also shed light on the managerial aspect of health education (including medical-check-up for students disease management. school feeding and the health education law and its organization) as well as its educational aspect (including curriculum, teaching & learning, and wishes of teachers). At the same time it attempted to present the ways of resolving the problems in health education as identified her. Its major findings are as follows; I. Colculsion and Summary 1. Despite the importance of health education, the area remains relatively undeveloped. Students spend a greater part of their time in schools. Hence the government should develop a keener awareness of the importance of health education and invest more in it to ensure a healthy, comfortable life for students. 2. At the moment the outcomes of medical-check-up for students, which constitutes the mainstay of health education, are used only as statistical data to report to the relevant authorities. Needless to say they should be used to help improve the wellbeing of students. Specifically, nurse-teachers and home-room teachers should share the outcomes of medical-check-up to help the students wit shortcomings in growth or development or other physical handicaps more clearly recognize their problems and correct them if possible. 3. In the area of disease management, 62.6, 30.3 and 23.0 percent of primary, middle, and highschool students, respectively, were found to suffer from dental ailments. By contrast 2.2, 7.8, and 11.5 percent of primary, middle and highschool students suffered from visual disorders. The incidence of dental ailments decreases while that of visual impairments increases as students grow up. This signifies that students are under tremendous physical strain in their efforts to be admitted by schools of higher grade. Accordingly the relevant authorities should revise the current admission system as well as improve lighting system in classrooms. 4. Budget restraints have often been cited as a major bottleneck to the expansion of school feeding. Nevertheless it should be extended at least, to all primary schools even at the expense of parents to ensure the sound growth of children by improving their diet. 5. The existing health education law should be revised in such a way as to better meet the needs of schools. Also the manpower for health education should be strengthened. 6. Proper curriculum is essential to the effective implementation of health education. Hence it is necessary to remove those parts in the current health education curriculum that overlaps with other subjects. It is also necessary to make health education a compulsory course in teachers' college at the same time the teachers in charge of health education should be given an in-service training. 7. Currently health education is being taught as part of physical education, science, home economics or other courses. However these subjects tend to be overshadowed by English, mathematics, and other subjects which carry heavier weight in admission test. It is necessary among other things, to develop an educational plan specifying the course hours and teaching materials. 8. Health education is carried out by nurse-teachers or home-room teachers. In connection with health education, they expressed the hope that health education will be normalized with newly-developed teaching material, expanded opportunity for in-service training and increased budget, facilities and supply of manpower. These are the mainpoints that the decision-makers should take into account in the formation of future policy for health education. II. Recommendations for the Improvement of Health Education 1. Regular medical check-up for students, which now is the mainstay of health education, should be used as educational data in an appropriate manner. For instance the records of medical check-up could be transferred between schools. 2. School feeding should be expanded at least in primary schools at the expense of the government or even parents. It will help improve the physical wellbeing of youths and the diet for the people. 3. At the moment the health education law is only nominal. Hence the law should be revised in such a way as to ensure the physical wellbeing of students and faculty. 4. Health education should be made a compulsory course in teachers' college. Also the teachers in service should be offered training in health education. 5. The curriculum of health education should be revised. Also the course hours should be extended or readjusted to better meet the needs of students. 6. In the meantime the course hours should be strictly observed, while educational materials should be revised in no time. 7. The government should expand its investment in facilities, budget and personnel for health education in schools at all levels.