• Journal of Life Science
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• v.26 no.2
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• pp.190-197
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• 2016

Aflatoxin M₁ can be produced in cow’s milk when cows eat contaminated produce. Milk is a major source of food for infants and for children who have a weak level of immunity, and the detection of Aflatoxin M₁ for risk assessment is necessary in order to reduce the amount of it in milk. In this study, the Aflatoxin M₁ level was monitored for one year in raw milk samples obtained from Chungnam Province, Korea. The milk samples were divided into three categories: 1. milk samples from a standard general farm, 2. milk samples from a HACCP controlled farm, and 3. milk samples from the supply of Aflatoxin M₁ reduced fodder. The average concentrations of Aflatoxin M₁ in milk were 0.023±0.005 ug/l for the standard general farm, 0.017±0.004 ug/l for the HACCP controlled farm, and 0.013±0.003 ug/l for the supply of Aflatoxin M₁ reduction fodder. Milk collected from the supply of Aflatoxin M₁ reduction fodder had the lowest level of Aflatoxin M₁. However, when efficiency and economic aspects are considered the most effective way of reducting Aflatoxin M₁, could be taking milk from the HACCP controlled farm and implementing good feed management. Institutional support from the government, careful management of dairy farming, and a strict farm sanitation program are required in order to lower the level of Aflatoxin M₁ in milk.

• Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology
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• v.44 no.2
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• pp.247-250
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• 2012

Raw milk samples (n=28) obtained from milk tanks in 3 dairy plants of different regions and commercial milks (n=100) were collected from six cities. These samples were analyzed for the level of aflatoxin $M_1$ contamination using immunoaffinity columns and high performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescent detectors. Confirmation of aflatoxin $M_1$ ($AFM_1$) identified in positive samples was based on the formation of the hemiacetal derivative ($AFM_{2a}$) after derivatization with trifluroacetic acid. The average concentrations of aflatoxin $M_1$ in the raw milks were 25.1 ng/kg, and those values in commercial milks were 29.8 ng/kg. The highest level of aflatoxin $M_1$ in milk was 72.7 ng/kg. These results showed that the contamination of aflatoxin $M_1$ in milks consumed in the Korea was quite low compared to the standard in Korea Food Code (aflatoxin $M_1$ 500 ng/kg).

• Food Science and Preservation
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• v.21 no.5
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• pp.747-756
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• 2014

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of vitamin C on the formation of aflatoxin $B_1$ ($AFB_1$)-DNA adduct and $AFB_1$-induing cellular oxidative damage in rat livers treated with radiation and $AFB_1$. Six-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into five groups: the control group, the $AFB_1$-treated group, the group treated with $AFB_1$ and vitamin C, the group treated with X-ray and $AFB_1$, and the group treated with X-ray and $AFB_1$ with vitamin C. On the first day of the experiment, only one dose of X-rays was exposed to the entire liver at 1,500 cGy. Next, vitamin C was injected at 10 mg/kg body weight via intraperitoneal injection, followed an hour later by the administration of 0.4 mg/kg of $AFB_1$ via intraperitoneal injection. These treatments were administered every three days for 15 days. On the 16th day, the animals were sacrificed. The $AFB_1$ contents of the rat sera were determined via indirect competitive ELISA. In the quantitative analysis of $AFB_1$ in the rat sera via ELISA, $5.17{\pm}0.34ng/mL$ of $AFB_1$ was detected in the $AFB_1$-treated groups, but the amount decreased more significantly to $3.23{\pm}0.76ng/mL$ in the groups treated with $AFB_1$ and vitamin C (p<0.01) than in the $AFB_1$-treated groups. The effect of vitamin C on $AFB_1$-DNA adduct formation was determined via ELISA. The values of $AFB_1$-DNA adduct formation were $9.38{\pm}0.41ng/mL$ in the $AFB_1$-treated groups, but the amount decreased more significantly to $5.28{\pm}0.32ng/mL$ in the groups treated with $AFB_1$ and vitamin C (p<0.01) than in the $AFB_1$-treated groups. Immunohistochemistry revealed that the accumulation of the $AFB_1$ was not observed in the normal liver tissue (G1). The $AFB_1$-positive materials were observed in the central vein and the portal vein of the liver tissue from the $AFB_1$(G2) treatment or the X-ray and $AFB_1$(G4) co-treatment, but the $AFB_1$-positive materials were observed weakly in the group treated with vitamin C (G3 and G5). These results indicate that vitamin C had ameliorating effects on the $AFB_1$ accumulation of liver tissue.

• Food Science of Animal Resources
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• v.37 no.1
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• pp.79-86
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• 2017

Aflatoxin $M_1$ ($AFM_1$) after its bioconversion from aflatoxin $B_1$ in animal liver becomes the part of milk while heavy metals get entry into milk and milk products during handling in the supply chain. Aflatoxin $M_1$ and heavy metals being toxic compounds are needed to be monitored continuously to avoid any ailments among consumers of foods contaminated with such toxicants. Thirteen commercially available infant formula milk (IFM) brands available in Pakistani markets were analyzed for the quantitative determination of $AFM_1$ and heavy metals through ELISA and atomic absorption spectrophotometer, respectively. $AFM_1$ was found positive in 53.84% samples while 30.76% samples were found exceeding the maximum EU limit i.e. $0.025 {\mu}g/kg$ for $AFM_1$ in IFM. Heavy metals lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) were found below the detection limits in any of the sample, whereas the concentrations of iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and nickel (Ni) ranged between 45.40-97.10, 29.72-113.50 and <$0.001-50.90 {\mu}g/kg$, respectively. The concentration of Fe in all the tested brands was found in normal ranges while the concentrations of Zn and Ni were found exceeding the standard norms. Elevated levels of $AFM_1$, Zn and Ni in some of the tested IFM brands indicated that a diet completely based on these IFM brands might pose sever health implications in the most vulnerable community i.e., infants.

• Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology
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• v.45 no.2
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• pp.235-240
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• 2013

To analyze aflatoxin $M_1$ ($AFM_1$), we dissolved infant formula in warm water and cleaned it by using an immunoaffinity column (IAC). The amount of $AFM_1$ was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection. $AFM_1$ was detected in 281 of 439 samples. Thus, the detection rate of $AFM_1$ was 64.0%. The average concentration of $AFM_1$ in positive samples was 2.6 ng/kg (of prepared formula). The estimated daily intake (EDI) of $AFM_1$ through infant formula was 0.087-0.646 ng/kg body weight/day and the additional number of cases of liver cancer associated with exposure to $AFM_1$ would be 0.003-0.020 cancer cases/1,000,000. Because there is less than 1 cancer case/1,000,000 per year, the exposure to $AFM_1$ through infant formula in Korea is considered to be an unlikely human health concern.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.24 no.7
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• pp.1011-1018
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• 2011

Aflatoxin-contaminated feed cause mortality, suppression of the immune system, reduced growth rates and losses in feed efficiency. This research study was planned to investigate the immunomodulatory and growth promoting effect of milk thistle as feed additive against aflatoxin $B_1$ in broiler chicks at NWFP Agricultural University Peshawar, Pakistan. Two hundred and forty (240) day old broilers chicks were randomly assigned into four major groups AfF, aflatoxin free feed; Aflatoxin $B_1$ was present in the feed at the levels of 80-520 ${\mu}g/kg$ of the feed in the remaining three groups. Aflatoxin contaminated feed was provided for 5 weeks. Group AfB was supplemented with toxin binder "Mycoad" at 3 g/kg of feed and group AfT was supplemented with milk thistle at10 g/kg of feed. Each group was further sub divided into two sub-groups, vaccinated against ND (Newcastle disease), IB (Infectious bronchitis) and IBD (Infectious bursal diseases) according to recommended schedule of vaccination or non vaccinated. Each sub group carried three replicates with 10 chicks per replicate. Chicks were reared in pens in an open sided house. Supplementary heat was provided to all the chicks during brooding period. Mean body weight gain and dressing percentage were significantly (p<0.05) higher in group AfF, followed by AfT, AfB and Af. Weight gain and dressing percentage was the same in group AfB and AfT, while it was significantly lower in group Af. Feed intake, breast, thigh and leg weight were found significantly (p<0.05) higher in group AfF, followed by AfB, AfT and Af. Significantly lower (better) FCR value was recorded in group AfT. Water intake was significantly (p<0.05) higher in group AfT and AfF as compared to other groups. Mortality was significantly (p<0.05) higher in group Af. Mean bursa and thymus weights were found significantly (p<0.05) higher in group AfF, AfB and AfT followed by Af, while higher spleen weight was recorded in group AfT. Mean antibody titer against ND, IB and IBD was significantly (p<0.05) higher in group AfT, as compared to other groups. It is concluded that milk thistle at 10 g/kg of feed could effectively be utilized as immunostimulant and growth promotant in the presence of immunosuppressant aflatoxin $B_1$ in the feed.

• Journal of The Korean Society of Grassland and Forage Science
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• v.40 no.2
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• pp.80-86
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• 2020

This study was conducted to research on the efficacy of chemical treatment as an effective method for reducing mycotoxin in rice straw silage. As a chemical treatment method, ammonia and sodium hydroxid were treated at 4% level of rice straws contaminated with mycotoxin, and the effects of silage storage on fungal toxin reduction, fermentation quality, and fiber digestion were evaluated. Aflatoxin B₁, B₂, G₁, G₂ and fumonisin B₁, B₂ as well as deoxynivalenol were not detected in all experimental groups, and ochratoxin A and zearalenone were detected. Ochratoxin A was detected lower in the chemical treatment than control (41.23 g / kg) (p<0.05). Zearalenone showed lower results in sodium hydroxide treatment (297.44 ㎍ / kg) than control (600.33 ㎍ / kg) and ammonia treatment (376.00 ㎍ / kg) (p<0.05). The pH of rice straw silage was the lowest in ammonia treatment and the highest in sodium hydroxide treatment (p<0.05). The lactic acid contents of control and ammonia treatments were similar, but sodium hydroxide treatment was the lowest (p<0.05). Propionic acid was higher in the control than in the chemical treatments (p<0.05), and showed similar contents in the ammonia and sodium hydroxide treatment. Both the rumen microbial degradation rate of NDF and ADF showed the highest in sodium hydroxide treatment, followed by ammonia treatment, and the control showed the lowest level (p<0.05). Therefore, the results of this study are demonstrated to have a good effect on the treatment of ammonia and sodium hydroxide to reduce the mycotoxins and increase the rumen microbial degradation rate in the rice straw silage. Sodium hydroxide treatment was more effective in reducing mycotoxins and improving fiber degradation rate than ammonia treatment, but it is thought to have an inefficient effect on silage fermentation in rice straw silage.

• Korean journal of food and cookery science
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• v.20 no.4
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• pp.365-370
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• 2004

The study was carried out to evaluate the radical scavenging activity, and antimutagenic and anticancer effects in Korean soybean paste(doenjang) added with various mushrooms. Ganoderma lucidum doenjang(Gl-TD) showed significant inhibitory activity against the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, with an IC$\sub$50/ value of 245$\mu\textrm{g}$/$m\ell$. In contrast, the other doenjang varieties appeared to have weaker antioxidant activity. Four kinds of doenjang didn't have any antimutagenic activity against N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine(MNNG) by adding of 5mg/plate, but exhibited a strong inhibitory effect(55∼70%) against aflatoxin B$_1$(AFB$_1$). Especially Phellinus linteus doenjang(Pl-TD) inhibited more than 70% of the mutagenicity induced by AFB$_1$ in Salmonella typhimurium TA100. On the other hand, the mushroom doenjang varieties showed relatively weak activity toward MNNG in SOS chromotest, their inhibitory rate ranging from 23% to 33%. Methanol extracts of Gl-TD and Pl-TD inhibited by 91∼92% the growth of AGS gastric cancer cells in a concentration of 100$\mu\textrm{g}$/$m\ell$.

• The Korean Journal of Mycology
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• v.14 no.1
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• pp.61-70
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• 1986

Sterigmatocystin bears a close structural relationship to aflatoxin $B_1$ and is a carcinogenic compound that has been shown to affect various species of experimental animals. Reaction and toxicity of sterigmatocystin in the artificial gastric juice were investigated. Sterigmatocystin was degraded in artificial gastric juice and extracted by the method of A.O.A.C. After cleaned up by silica gel column chromatography, this substance was detected and characterized by thin layer chromatography, UV, IR and mass spectra. It showed $R{\mathcal{f}}$ 0.4 and brick-red color by TLC. Especially, in the mass spectrum of it, fragment peak at m/e 327 was due to the loss of the $-CH_3$ and $-H_2O$, fragment peak at m/e 341 was due to the loss of the $H_2O$ and $-H^+$, and fragment peak at m/e 239 was due to the loss of the 2-chloro-tetrahydrofuran and methyl group from the parent molecule. Therefore, a degraded substance of sterigmatocystin reacted in artificial gastric juice (Sub. K) was estimated with additional formation of hydrochloric acid. In four-day-old chicken embryos, the mean lethal dose $(LD_{50})$ was $140\;{\mu}g/egg$, and 90 to 100% of the embryos were killed with 1 mg/egg. This $LD_{50}$ $140\;{\mu}g/egg$ compared with an $LD_{50}$ $14.69\;{\mu}g/egg$ for sterigmatocystin (acute toxicity) showed the substance to be much less toxic than sterigmatocystin.

• Journal of Food Hygiene and Safety
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• v.21 no.2
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• pp.76-81
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• 2006

We optimized conditions of extract solvents and elution solvents for total aflatoxins in foods using HPLC/FLD. The extract solvent was 70% methanol solution including 1% NaCl and the 3 mL of acetonitrile was used as elution solvent using immnuoaffinity column. The detection limits (LOD) was 0.05 ng/g. The recoveries for total aflatoxins ($B_1,\;B_2,\;G_1\;and\;G_2$) studied in foods were cereals ($74.1{\sim}95.5%,\;83.7{\sim}98.8%,\;80.4{\sim}102.4%,\;72.8{\sim}76.5%$), pulses ($85.8{\sim}87.5%,\;83.8{\sim}90.7%,\;92.0{\sim}94.5%,\;60.6{\sim}65.6%$), nuts ($84.6{\sim}97.1%,\;86.0{\sim}94.1%,\;95.5{\sim}111.5%,\;71.0{\sim}89.9%$), processed foods ($81.5{\sim}87.1%,\;82.8{\sim}85.8%,\;85.4{\sim}92.7%,\;68.9{\sim}76.4%$), dried fruits ($83.6{\sim}93.5%,\;78.1{\sim}90.4%,\;93.0{\sim}108.5%,\;64.9{\sim}78.5%$) and other foods ($72.5{\sim}98.3%,\;73.1{\sim}96.4%,\;83.5{\sim}107.2%,\;64.2{\sim}75.8%$), respectively.