• Journal of architectural history
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• v.19 no.5
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• pp.25-47
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• 2010

The purpose of this study is to reconstruct the wooden frame structure of Buddhist temple, Kumdang in Youngamsaji which assumed to be built in the 9th century of Unified Silla Dynasty. The remaining site of Kumdang in Youngamsaji is investigated thoroughly with a particular attention to bay size and column distribution. The five ancient Buddhist temples which were built in the same period also have the same frame type as Youngamsaji Kumdang. These five ancient Buddhist temples and Kumdang in Youngamsaji are meticulously investigated in terms of their bay sizes and measuring modules. The framework schema is devised as a conceptual tool to conjecture wooden frame structures of Buddhist temple. A theoretical differentiation between frame type and frame structure is attempted to formulated a wooden frame structure as a stepping-stone for the reconstruction of traditional wooden building. The wooden frame structure of 9C Kumdang in Youngamsaji mainly follows the oldest Korean wooden pavilion, Muryangsujeon in Busuk temple, with a hip and gable roof. The wooden frame structure of 9C Kumdang in Youngamsaji is reconstructed through 3D computer modeling to such an extent that every wooden components of the structure can be 3D printed. The reconstruction also takes reference from the Cai-Fen system in Yingzao Fashi.

• The Journal of the Korea Contents Association
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• v.11 no.3
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• pp.460-466
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• 2011

Kameun temple was constructed in A.D. 682 after 46 year after Chumsungdae was constructed. This paper discusses the scientific implication of Taegeuk stone rods of Kameun temple site through the geometric analysis of their engraved figures. So we can estimate that the west Taegeuk of Kameun temple site has 2 circles comparing the path of the moon with that of the sun leading to the asymmetry in its emblem(Taegeuk) and the east Taegeuk of Kameun temple site has 1 circle representing the path of the sun. The Taegeuks along with around 30 equilateral triangles representing the north latitude $35.8^{\circ}$ give the explicit information of period of the orbit of the moon and the sun. These mathematical methods can explain some relics structure of antiquity with a few historical expounds.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.37 no.3
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• pp.198-208
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• 2023

This study collected samples of Korean dark sleepers (Odontobutis interrupta) in the Keumdang Stream from March to November 2021 to investigate their feeding habits. The sizes were classified by age (1 year and 2 years old, and 3 years or older). The food organisms of O. interrupta included Isopoda, Amphipoda, and Decapoda of the Malacostraca, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, Plecoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, and Trichoptera belonging to the aquatic insect of Arthropoda (accounting for 86.6% of the population), Tubificida, Haplotaxida, and Rhynchobdellida belonging to the Clitellata of Annelida (accounting for 7.3%), Systellommatophora and Mesogastropoda belonging to the Gastropodo of Mollusca (accounting for 2.8%), fish (accounting for 3.3%), and fish eggs. Korean dark sleepers fed mostly on aquatic insects, fish, crustaceans, and annelids. Aquatic insects were the most important food source, with 70.1% of the population, 31.7% in biomass, and 72.6% in the index of relative importance. Korean dark sleepers were carnivorous in diet and belonged to the stalker in food intake characteristics and forms. A food migration was observed since less Diptera was found, and more fish, Decapoda, Trichoptera, and Odonata were found in the biomass of the feed consumed by larger species. Diptera (65.3%), Haplotaxida (14.5%), Ephemeroptera (7.0%), Diptera (58.6%), Ephemeroptera (24.5%), fish (4.8%) Diptera (30.1%), Ephemeroptera (20.4%), Isopoda (13.3%) were mainly fed in the autumn.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.37 no.2
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• pp.151-162
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• 2023

This study investigated the characteristics of fish communities and inhabiting status of the endangered species, Rhodeus pseudosericeus, in the Geumdang Stream in Korea from March to October 2021. A total of 1,698 fish in 5 families and 25 species were collected from 7 survey stations during the survey period. The dominant species was Zacco platypus (relative abundance, 46.5%), and the subdominant species was Squalidus gracilis majimae (16.7%), followed by Rhynchocypris oxycephalus (12.0%), Z. koreanus (5.7%), Pungtungia herzi (3.2%), R. pseudosericeus (2.0%), R. notatus (1.9%), and Acheilognathus rhombeus (1.8%). Nine Korean endemic species (36.0%) were collected, including R. pseudosericeus, R. uyekii, Sarcocheilichthys variegatus wakiyae, Microphysogobio yaluensis, S. gracilis majimae, Z. koreanus, Cobitis nalbanti, Iksookimia koreensis, and Odontobutis interrupta. An exotic species, Micropterus salmoides, designated as an invasive alien species (IAS), was collected downstream. The investigation of the habitat patterns of the endangered species (class II), Rhodeus pseudosericeus, showed a habitat range of about 6 to 7 km in the middle of Geumdang Stream (RP-1 to RP-4), and this species inhabited the edge with water depths of 0.3 through 1.0 m with slow water flow and many aquatic plants. According to the community analysis results, the overall dominance and evenness indexes were low, while diversity and richness indexes were high, and the cluster structure was largely divided into upstream and middle-downstream areas. The river health (fish assessment index) evaluated using fish was assessed as good (3 stations), normal (3 stations), and bad (1 station), and water quality was evaluated as good both upstream and downstream. Compared to previous studies, the number of species was relatively similar, and among the species that appeared in the past, 13 species did not appear in this survey, while 6 species appeared for the first time in this survey. Disturbance factors included river construction, many weirs, and the appearance of the ecosystem-disturbing species, M. salmoides. Since Geumdang Strem has high conservation value because it is home to many species in the Acheilognathinae subfamily, including the endangered species R. pseudosericeus, continuous attention and systematic conservation measures are required.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.53 no.3
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• pp.80-109
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• 2020

The Sacheonwangsa Temple in Silla is an esoteric temple that was founded provisionally in 670, and was completed in 679. This study attempted to elucidate the planning method of the Sacheonwangsa Temple based on the results of research on excavations and investigations into its construction processes and construction measures thereof. The research results are as follows. (1) In the site construction, assuming the size of one Bang (坊) on the south of Nangsan Mountain, after dividing the north-south width into three equal parts, there is a possibility that two of these parts were set to the flat portion. (2) In the 'Jochang (祖創, 670)', it is estimated that an area of 300 cheoks by 300 cheoks was postulated on the flat surface, and, as an initial conception, the mandala's plane design of the outer square 2 hasta (3 cheoks) and inner square 1 hasta (1.5 cheoks) was originally devised for the setting of 'Mudra (神印)', and an area 100 times greater has been set as the basis in the scale and layout planning of the central block. (3) During 'Gaechang (攺刱, ~679)', it is judged that because of the narrowness of the distance between the Pagoda and Geumdang Hall, which occurs when the center of the Geumdang Hall coincides with the center of 'the first stage of the foundation (先築基壇)', the scale and layout planning were adjusted from the initial conception. (4) The arrangement of the building was determined by dividing the fixed size of the central block (280 cheoks by 320 cheoks). Specifically, the east-west direction is set on the quartile's line of the east-west width of the central block, and in contrast, the north-south direction is based on the structural characteristics of the central block. It is presumed that the position of the transept was determined through the division and adjustment of the column spacing of the east-west corridor, then the Geumdang Hall and Altar were based on this. (5) The scale of the Geumdang Hall and Pagoda is determined by the petition of the division by the unit fraction starting from the quartile's line of the central block's east-west width. This planning is understood to be based on the self-similarity, which is rooted in the mandala's plane design as the model.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.20 no.1
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• pp.95-116
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• 2011

It is a true fact that the ancient Buddhist temples of Korea were great, important historical influence revealing the transition and developing stages of all the BUddhist temples in Eastern Asia including China and Japan. Before Mahayana arose within India, the monastery and pagoda were united during the conflict and development of the original Buddhism and pagoda faith. With the arising of Mahayana and the introduction of Buddhist statues, the Buddhist temple and pagoda were in conflict and resulted in separation. With the creation and development of the Mahayana Bodhisattva concept, Hinayana and Mahayana started to show doctrine differences and expressed each others' characteristics relevant to the structure of the temple. As a result, the Buddhist Temple having 1 pagoda spread in China together with Hinayana and Mahayana. The Buddhist temple of Hinayana had its temple and pagoda separated and the Buddhist temple that has a pagoda in front was divided into a form of 1 pagoda and 1 main temple. The temple and pagoda for Mahayana in the form of 1 pagoda and 2 temple, where the main statue of the Buddha may be worshipped from both the left and right hand sides, were separated in the form of 1 pagoda and 3 temples to have its original form again. Mahayana was first introduced into Goguryeo through the routes in the northern region and developed from having 1 pagoda and 2 temples, to having 1 pagoda and 3 temples. China was influenced by the southern regions, which is why Abhidharma was introduced into Baekje. Later on, the importance of Bodhisattva increased and the transition speed of the Buddhist temple having 1 pagoda and 3 temples accelerated, as Buddhism became more popular and as Mahayana flourished. The statue of the Buddha on both sides of the pagoda shall gradually move next to the central temple, and the temple shall form large crowds to not only form a tacit boundary with the pagoda but the expansion of Bodhisattva shall also have a wall or a corridor constructed in between the central, left and right hand side temples to form separate areas, and shall have a pagoda built in front of the temples that worship from both sides. In conclusion, independence shall exist among each Bodhisattva within the Buddhist temple, and the status of the pagoda shall fall and appear as the pagoda on both sides in front of the main Buddha statue.

• MISULJARYO - National Museum of Korea Art Journal
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• v.100
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• pp.22-49
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• 2021

Bowonsa Temple (普願寺) is located to the north of Gayasan Mountain in Unsan-myeon, Seosan-si, Chungcheongnam-do Province. The cultural properties it enshrines were produced during the late Unified Silla and early Goryeo periods, and include an Iron Seated Buddha. The Japanese Government-General of Korea Museum planned a survey on historical remains in Chungcheongnam-do Province during the early Japanese colonial era, and a field survey was conducted at the Bowonsa Temple site in 1916 (Taishō 5). During this survey, the sculpture of the Iron Seated Buddha (knee: width 212 cm x thickness 167 cm) was found enshrined in a hut. The sculpture was moved to Gyeongbokgung Palace in the following year. However, it is clear that the colossal Iron Seated Buddha was being housed at the Bowonsa Temple site at the start of the Japanese colonial era. This Iron Seated Buddha is presumed to have been produced in 955 by State Preceptor Beopin Tanmun (法印國師 坦文, 900-975). Tanmun was born into an influential family that produced many high officials. He became a leading figure in the Hwaeom (Flower Garland) school of Buddhism under the patronage of King Taejo. He also led Buddhist events at the Goryeo royal court during the reigns of King Hyejong (惠宗, r. 943-945) and King Jeongjong (定宗, r. 945-949). With the emergence of Gyunyeo (均如, 923-973), who was sponsored by Queen Daemok (大穆王后, dates unknown) of the Hwangbo clan (皇甫氏), Tanmun was transferred to Bowonsa Temple far from Kaesong. However, even while there Tanmun strengthened his ties with his supporters under the patronage of the Chungju Yu clan. He appears to have produced this colossal sculpture of Iron Seated Buddha as a prayer for longevity and a happy life for King Gwangjong (光宗, r. 949-975). The inscription on the Stele of State Preceptor Beopin at Bowonsa Temple Site that reads "[I] created a Buddha triad in gold" also suggests the Iron Seated Buddha was produced at Bowonsa Temple. This Iron Seated Buddha is thought to have been enshrined originally in a hall at Building Site No. 3 within the Bowonsa Temple precinct. Since excavations at the temple site have revealed that the temple's main hall was erected in the Joseon period, the Iron Seated Buddha might have been enshrined in a different hall at the time of its creation. It is likely that the sculpture was placed in a hall at Building Site No. 3 since Goryeo-era roof tiles and porcelain have been frequently excavated there and the remains of a square Buddhist altar have survived at the site. At the time of its creation, the Iron Seated Buddha was likely enshrined in a Goryeo-era hall at Building Site No. 3 but was transferred to the main hall during a rebuilding project undertaken at Bowonsa Temple in the Joseon period.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.37 no.1
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• pp.86-93
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• 2023

This study investigated the ecological characteristics of Odontobutis interrupta at the Geumdang Stream from January to December 2021. The riverbed structure of the species habitat was rich in sand and mud. The water was deep, ranging from 21 to 124 cm, with an average of 48 cm. The stream velocity was slow at 0.24 (0.08-0.36) m/sec. The ratio of females to males was 1:0.98, and the total length of collected individuals ranged from 23 mm to 162 mm. The age according to the total length-frequency distribution as of May indicated that the group with a total length of 23-59 mm was one year old, the group with 60-99 mm was two years old, the group with 100-139 mm was three years old, and the group with 140-162 mm was four years old. As a secondary gender characteristic, the females genital papilla had a cylindrical shape, a hollow inside of the tip, and a longer diameter than males. The males had a cone shape with a pointed end. Sexually mature males had the nuptial color, with a black abdomen and whole body. Some females with a length ranging from 60 to 69 mm and all females 70 mm longer were sexually mature. Some males with a length ranging from 70 to 79 mm and all males 80 mm longer were sexually mature. The spawning season was from May to July, and the water temperature was between 19.6℃ to 29℃ during that period. The prosperous spawning season was June (26℃). The average number of eggs in the ovaries was 2,473 (883-4,955) per matured female, and the matured eggs were yellowish and spherical with a mean diameter of 1.42 (1.20-0.54) mm. The correlation between total length and weight was BW=0.0000006TL^3.21 with the constant a as 0.0000006 and parameter b as 3.21. The condition factor (K) was 1.67 (1.18-2.43) on average, and the slope was 0.116.

• Proceedings of the Korea Water Resources Association Conference
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• 2012.05a
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• pp.970-970
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• 2012

최근 치수의 기능을 수행하면서 원래 자연하천의 모습을 보전 혹은 복원하는 "생태하천 복원 공법"의 필요성이 대두되고 있으나 구체적인 공법에 대한 연구는 미미한 실정이다. 본 연구에서는 하천 내 시설물의 조성 시 유황에 따른 자연 하안 유도와 습지형태의 생물 서식공간 조성 유무를 평가하기 위하여 평창강 일원에 목재 유도틀을 설치하고 이에 따른 지형변화, 저서무척추동물을 포함한 수생생물들의 서식특성을 분석하였다. 평창강 금당계곡 일원을 대상으로 RMA-2 모형의 범용프로그램인 SMS 모형을 통해 수리 특성분석을 실시하였고 안산에 있는 수리모형 실험장에서 기본 수리특성 실험 후 수리적 안정성이 확보된 지점에 목재 유도틀을 2009년 9월에 설치하여 유도틀 설치 전과 설치 후 2010년 10월까지의 지형변화를 분석하였다. 지형의 측량은 광파측정기(니콘 DTM-520)로 하였으며 측량된 자료를 이용하여 Contour Map을 작성하여 지형변화를 분석하였고, 유도틀 설치지역을 중심으로 2010년에 3차에 걸쳐 지형 및 생물상 변화에 대한 정량 및 정성조사를 실시하여 비교분석 하였다. 유도틀 설치 후 2010년 하절기에 집중호우에 의한 유도틀의 파손 및 형태변형 등 문제가 없어 수리적으로 안정한 것으로 판단되었다. 지형 변화의 측면에서는 유도틀 조성 전 사질로 되어있던 단순한 선형의 하안이 유도틀 설치 후 다양한 하상재질 및 형태가 변화했으며 유도틀의 배치에 따라서 굼치 및 둠벙형 습지가 형성되었다. 유도틀 설치지역의 3개지점(상부, 중간배후습지, 하부)에서 저서무척추동물에 대하여 모니터링한 결과, 설치된 유도틀의 중간지점에서 가장 높게 종의 서식이 확인되었으며 상부지점과 하부지점은 상대적으로 낮게 나왔으나 상부지점 보다는 하부지점이 양호하게 나타났다. 조사시기별 개체수의 변화에서는 종수변화와 패턴이 유사하게 나타났으며 깔다구와 꼬마줄날도래등 특정종의 증식이 많았다. 또한, 굼치 및 둠벙형 습지 내에 어류의 치어 및 유어, 양서류, 파충류등 다양한 생물의 서식이 확인되었다. 이는 유도틀에 의해 생성 및 유도된 지형변화가 하천을 기반으로 생활하는 생물들에게 다양한 피난처 및 은신처 역할을 잘 제공하고 있음을 보여준다.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.28 no.2
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• pp.77-90
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• 2019

The Sacheonwangsa temple in Silla was completed in 679, just after the unification of the Three Kingdoms. In recent years, we have been critically considering the history of the chronology based on the existence of 'Geumdang of the previous generation', which has emerged through the research report of the Sacheonwangsa temple. It is the one to reconsider the construction process of the Sacheonwangsa temple centering on the re-interpretation of the construction time and the character of the first stage of the foundation which was confirmed from within the Geumdang site. The results of this study are as follows : 1)The "Chang(創) of Sacheonwangsa temple" in [Three Affairs that Queen Seondeok had already known] that it is presumed that the construction of the Sacheonwangsa temple, which was designed by Anham before 640 years ago, will convey the fact that the first of the King Munmu's reign (661 ~) has been finalized after the initial discussion. 2)Although the theories after excavations are predicated on the existence of 'Geumdang of the previous generation', there is no reason to believe that a lasting predecessor building with roof and pillar walls on predecessor buildings is considered to have been built. The foundation was associated with the "build a temple out of coloured silk(以彩帛營寺)" i.e. 'Jochang(祖創)' in 670 years before the construction plan was formally finalized. However, it is presumed that the remains of the platform construction on the premise that it will be used on the construction of Geumdang. 3)The decision to 'rebuilding( ??)' based on a formal construction plan is determined to be from 670 to 672 years. The maintaining of the original cathedral axis line, to the north on the boundary of the southern limit of the foundation flat portion, the result of developing and embodied the relative position of the Geumdang in the newly determined cathedral unfold and embody, the center of the building base and Geumdang, it is presumed that the centers of them are divided into North and south. 4)The completion of the Sacheonwangsa temple in 679 is understood as the conclusion of 'rebuilding' to "build a temple out of coloured silk" i.e. 'Jochang' in 670 years. The pent roof of the Geumdang was initially considered not to be in the plan, but it is judged to be before the completion of the Sacheonwangsa temple.