• Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture
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• v.44 no.4
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• pp.22-34
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• 2016

The purpose of this study was to analyze commemoration characteristics of fifty-nine Vietnam war memorials in Korea(VWMK) including monuments and national cemeteries from landscape architectural point of view such as location, spacial characteristic, landscape detail, sculpture, and interpretive text. Based on the commemoration characteristics of the analysis, the commemoration culture among Vietnam, the U.S.A., and Korea were studied and differences compared. The results are as follows. First, monuments were mainly located in public open space such as national cemeteries, parks, and plaza, and some of them were elected along with Korea war memorials to honor Vietnam war veterans at the national level. Second, because the monuments were relatively small and memorial towers were conventionally built on a square platform, the memorial style had been simply standardized to stereotype the commemoration characteristics. Third, outmoded memorial towers, stone plates, emblems, and memorial walls were used as main landscape details and standardized facilities were considered from an artistic and social point of view. Fourth, realistic soldier statues to show heroic and humanitarian image were in majority, while symbolic and abstract sculpture were small in number, they were mostly conventional and unexpressive. Fifth, the causes of participation in the Vietnam War were predominantly expressed as 'defending freedom', 'keeping world peace', and 'national economic development' based on anti-communism and patriotism, and also the collectivity of Vietnam War veterans by troop and local level was emphasized through engraving each veterans's name on towers, plates, and walls. VWMK are mostly conventional and stereotyped in style and show strongly national official memory and the collectivity of veterans from a sociopolitical perspective, and aim for anti-communistic patriotism ideologically. Further study and projects will be required to make creative and innovative memorials and to study how to rethink sublime fundamental themes like war, death, and the individual veteran's experience in VWMK.

• International Area Studies Review
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• v.22 no.3
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• pp.3-27
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• 2018

This paper analyzes Cuba's market-oriented reforms to alleviate essential problems with socialist countries such as soft budget constraints and incentive problems. It also discuss about effectiveness of industrial policy as a development strategy. The soft budget constraints and incentive problems resulted in the collapse of Soviet bloc and COMECON in early 1990s. After the collapse, Cuban economy suffered a steep dive, and national income tumbling down rapidly. Cuban faced serious shortages of food, gasoline, and other basic necessities of life. To halt and partially reverse economic downturn and dire austerity in the 1990's, the Cuban government made some partial reforms to the inherited Soviet system of cental planningand faced severe shortage in food, energy, and daily necessities. In response to the economic crisis. Cuba introduced economic reforms and implemented industrial policy as a development strategy as long as Cuba maintained a strong socialist country. Cuban government established the economic free zone law and attempted to induce foreign direct investment by implementing export-led industrial policy. Fiedel Castro approved the Law No. 165 "Free Zones and Industrial Parks", in 1996. However, Cuba's ESZ strategy seems to have failed because of the U.S. sanctions, but also because of Cuba's own policies, which do not allow foreign investors to hire workers directly and impose a high implicit tax on wages. By limiting advanced techniques of personnel and organization management, indirect employment can result in lowering work efforts and productivity of workers, and aggravating production efficiency in the ESZs. Another reason to fail comes from the double wage structure due to the double monetary-exchange rate system. Most of the high non-wage costs result from the double exchange rate system. Due to Cuba's imbalanced industry and production structures, concentrated labor force, and urbanization and centralization of agriculture production, the industrial transformation development model suggested by Lewis has not been successful unlike other Asian agriculture-led development model. Cuba has to overcome many difficulties in implementing industrial policy as a development strategy.

• Journal of Ginseng Culture
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• v.3
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• pp.90-118
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• 2021

Gaeseong fostered the conditions necessary for modern capitalism, as huge capital was accumulated through the cultivation and trade of ginseng, which were activities that flourished in the 18th century. During the Japanese colonial era, ginseng merchants were not simply limited to acquiring landowner capital from ginseng trade but actively converted such resource to productive and financial capital, thereby becoming modern entrepreneurs. Ginseng merchants led the joint management and investment of Gaeseong Electric Co., Ltd., Daehan Cheonil Bank, Gaeseong Brewing Co., Ltd., and Songgo Textile Company, founded in the early 20th century. They pursued corporate profits and, as leading individuals of society, spearheaded regional development by supporting educational and cultural projects in Gaeseong. These projects included the establishment of the Gaeseong Commercial School, the publication of Goryeo Times, and the operation of the Gaeseong Jwa Theater. Although liberal economics prioritized shareholder interest, the 21st century witnessed an emphasis on social responsibility among stakeholders asthe major purpose of enterprises. A trend that emerged was ESG (environment, social, governance) management, in which non-financial factors are valued more highly than financial performance. A successful business, which was denoted only by high profits in the past, is now defined by whether a company fulfills its social responsibility. In the early 20th century, the corporate activities of ginseng merchants in Gaeseong reflected entrepreneurship and stakeholder-centered ESG management, which later emerged as essential elements of modern business management. The modern management philosophy ahead of its times stemmed from the regionality of Gaeseong. The political discrimination against Gaeseong residents in the Joseon Dynasty precluded them from becoming government officers, and under a strict social hierarchy, yangban ("noblemen"), the intellectuals of the Joseon Dynasty, were forced to serve as merchants. Son Bong-sang and Kong Seong-hak, aside from being representative ginseng merchants, were both Confucian scholars and writers. The second and third generations of ginseng merchant families who had received higher education abroad returned to Gaeseong to carry on with their family businesses, then established modern companies with capital accrued from the ginseng industry. An analysis of the commercial activities of ginseng merchants in the early 20th century confirmed that these individuals were pioneering entrepreneurs who adopted the ESG management philosophy. In ginseng merchants, one sees a dimension of capitalism with a human face, as with ginseng thatsaves human life.

• Korean Journal of Plant Resources
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• v.35 no.4
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• pp.435-444
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• 2022

Hibiscus hamabo Sieb. et Zucc. (yellow hibiscus) is a deciduous semi-shrub plant and mainly growing in Jeju Island. This is known the unique wild hibiscus genus and classified as an 2nd grade of endangered plant for Korean Red List. In previous studies, properties of germination, ecological, genetical and salt resistance have been reported. In this study, we investigated mass-proliferated adventitious root using bioreactor, antioxidant and whitening effects to conduct functional ingredients. Yellow hibiscus were collected from Gujwa, Jeju by prior permission and they were introduced by explant type and various medium composition after surface sterilization. As a result, seed response rates were evaluated at range of 51.17~51.83%, in terms of comprehensive efficiency of shoot and root formation. In the case of adventitious root propagation condition was confirmed in half strength Murashige and Skoog medium salts, 30 mg/L sucrose, and 2 mg/L indole-3-butyric acid for 8 weeks in 5,000 mL bioreactor. We also compared between relationship with biomass and secondary metabolites accumulation by total phenolics content, the flavonoid content, DPPH free radical scavenging activity and melanin content. The results indicated that adventitious root mass proliferation, antioxidant and whitening effect could develop value of the high-quality cosmeceutical ingredient and further metabolite studies.

• The Korean Journal of Air & Space Law and Policy
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• v.25 no.2
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• pp.139-162
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• 2010

In terms of the international air transport, the open skies policy implies freedom in the sky or opening the sky. In the normative respect, the open skies policy is a kind of open-door policy which gives various forms of traffic right to other countries, but on the other hand it is a policy of free competition in the international air transport. Since the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978, the United States has signed an open skies agreement with many countries, starting with the Netherlands, so that competitive large airlines can compete in the international air transport market where there exist a lot of business opportunities. South Korea now has an open skies agreement with more than 20 countries. The frequent flyer program (FFP) is part of a broad-based marketing alliance which has been used as an airfare strategy since the U.S. government's airline deregulation. The membership-based program is an incentive plan that provides mileage points to customers for using airline services and rewards customer loyalty in tangible forms based on their accumulated points. In its early stages, the frequent flyer program was focused on marketing efforts to attract customers, but now in the environment of intense competition among airlines, the program is used as an important strategic marketing tool for enhancing business performance. Therefore, airline companies agree that they need to identify customer needs in order to secure loyal customers more effectively. The outcomes from an airline's frequent flyer program can have a variety of effects on international competition. First, the airline can obtain a more dominant position in the air flight market by expanding its air route networks. Second, the availability of flight products for customers can be improved with an increase in flight frequency. Third, the airline can preferentially expand into new markets and thus gain advantages over its competitors. However, there are few empirical studies on the airline frequent flyer program. Accordingly, this study aims to explore the effects of the program on international competition, after reviewing the types of strategic alliance between airlines. Making strategic airline alliances is a worldwide trend resulting from the open skies policy. South Korea also needs to be making open skies agreements more realistic to promote the growth and competition of domestic airlines. The present study is about the performance of the airline frequent flyer program and international competition under the open skies policy. With a sample of five global alliance groups (Star, Oneworld, Wings, Qualiflyer and Skyteam), the study was attempted as an empirical study of the effects that the resource structures and levels of information technology held by airlines in each group have on the type of alliance, and one-way analysis of variance and regression analysis were used to test hypotheses. The findings of this study suggest that both large airline companies and small/medium-size airlines in an alliance group with global networks and organizations are able to achieve high performance and secure international competitiveness. Airline passengers earn mileage points by using non-flight services through an alliance network with hotels, car-rental services, duty-free shops, travel agents and more and show high interests in and preferences for related service benefits. Therefore, Korean airline companies should develop more aggressive marketing programs based on multilateral alliances with other services including hotels, as well as with other airlines.

• The Korean Journal of Air & Space Law and Policy
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• v.21 no.1
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• pp.215-236
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• 2006

This article focused on the meaning of the 1979 Moon Treaty and its future. Although the Moon Treaty is one of the major 5 space related treaties, it was accepted by only 11 member states which are non-space powers, thus having the least enfluences on the field of space law. And this article analysed the relationship between the 1979 Moon Treay and 1967 Space Treaty which was the first principle treaty, and searched the meaning of the "Common Heritage of Mankind(hereinafter CHM)" stipulated in the Moon treaty in terms of international law. This article also dealt with the present and future problems arising from the Moon Treaty. As far as the 1967 Space Treaty is concerned the main standpoint is that outer space including the moon and the other celestial bodies is res extra commercium, areas not subject to national appropriation like high seas. It proclaims the principle non-appropriation concerning the celestial bodies in outer space. But the concept of CHM stipulated in the Moon Treaty created an entirely new category of territory in international law. This concept basically conveys the idea that the management, exploitation and distribution of natural resources of the area in question are matters to be decided by the international community and are not to be left to the initiative and discretion of individual states or their nationals. Similar provision is found in the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention that operates the International Sea-bed Authority created by the concept of CHM. According to the Moon Treaty international regime will be established as the exploitation of the natural resources of the celestial bodies other than the Earth is about to become feasible. Before the establishment of an international regime we could imagine moratorium upon the expoitation of the natural resources on the celestial bodies. But the drafting history of the Moon Treaty indicates that no moratorium on the exploitation of natural resources was intended prior to the setting up of the international regime. So each State Party could exploit the natural resources bearing in mind that those resouces are CHM. In this respect it would be better for Korea, now not a party to the Moon Treaty, to be a member state in the near future. According to the Moon Treaty the efforts of those countries which have contributed either directly or indirectly the exploitation of the moon shall be given special consideration. The Moon Treaty, which although is criticised by some space law experts represents a solid basis upon which further space exploration can continue, shows the expression of the common collective wisdom of all member States of the United Nations and responds the needs and possibilities of those that have already their technologies into outer space.

• Journal of the Korean Geographical Society
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• v.38 no.2
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• pp.312-323
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• 2003

This writer absolutely agrees with the government that regional disequilibrium is severe enough to consider moving the administrative capital. Pursuing this course solely to establish a balanced development, however, is not a convincing enough reason. The capital city is directly related to not only the social and economic situation but, much more importantly, to the domestic political situation as well. In the mid-1970s, the proposal by the Third Republic to move the capital city temporarily was based completely on security reasons. At e time, the then opposition leader Kim, Dae-jung said that establishing a safe distance from the demilitarized zone(DMZ) reflected a typically military decision. His view was that retaining the capital city close to the DMZ would show more consideration for the will of the people to defend their own country. In fact, independent Pakistan moved its capital city from Karachi to Islamabad, situated dose to Kashmir the subject of hot territorial dispute with India. It is regrettable that no consideration has been given to the urgent political situation in the Korean peninsula, which is presently enveloped in a dense nuclear fog. As a person requires health to pursue his/her dream, a country must have security to implement a balanced territorial development. According to current urban theories, the fate of a country depends on its major cities. A negligently guarded capital city runs the risk of becoming hostage and bringing ruin to the whole country. In this vein, North Koreas undoubted main target of attack in the armed communist reunification of Korea is Seoul. For the preservation of our state, therefore, it is only right that Seoul must be shielded to prevent becoming hostage to North Korea. The location of the US Armed Forces to the north of the capital city is based on the judgment that defense of Seoul is of absolute importance. At the same time, regardless of their different standpoints, South and North Korea agree that division of the Korean people into two separate countries is abnormal. Reunification, which so far has defied all predictions, may be realized earlier than anyone expects. The day of reunification seems to be the best day for the relocation of the capital city. Building a proper capital city would take at least twenty years, and a capital city cannot be dragged from one place to another. On the day of a free and democratic reunification, a national agreement will be reached naturally to find a nationally symbolic city as in Brazil or Australia. Even if security does not pose a problem, the governments way of thinking would not greatly contribute to the balanced development of the country. The Chungcheon region, which is earmarked as the new location of the capital city, has been the greatest beneficiary of its proximity to the capital region. Not being a disadvantaged region, locating the capital city there would not help alleviate regional disparity. If it is absolutely necessary to find a candidate region at present, considering security, balanced regional development and post-reunification scenario of the future, Cheolwon area located in the middle of the Korean peninsula may be a plausible choice. Even if the transfer of capital is delayed in consideration of the present political conflict between the South and the North Koreas, there is a definite shortcut to realizing a balanced regional development. It can be found not in the geographical dispersal of the central government, but in the decentralization of power to the provinces. If the government has surplus money to build a new symbolic capital city, it is only right that it should improve, for instance, the quality of drinking water which now everyone eschews, and to help the regional subway authority whose chronic deficit state resoled in a recent disastrous accident. And it is proper to time the transfer of capital city to coincide with that of the reunification of Korea whenever Providence intends.

• Journal of Arbitration Studies
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• v.17 no.1
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• pp.183-215
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• 2007

The purpose of this paper is to study of WTO regulations related FTA such as Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXIV of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT) 1994 and General Agreement on Trade in Service(GATS). In this study, the First introduced FTA rules of WTO in the chapter 2. The WTO agreement includes the "General Agreement on Tariffs an Trade(GATT) 1994". This instrument, known as "GATT 1994", is based on upon the original General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade referred to as "GATT 1947". The Second analyzed the relations between FTA and Article XXIV of GATT 1994 in the chapter 3. The Article XXIV of GATT 1994 is an agreement between the distinctive members for liberalizing trade. The Article XXIV of GATT 1994 is consist of three parts such as customs unions, free-trade area, and interim agreements that WTO is referred to as "Regional Trade Agreement(RTA)". There is a difference between the customs unions and the free-trade area. In the customs unions rules, the members should have the same tarifficatio and the same trade provision against non-members, but in the free-trade are a rules, the member is not necessary to have the same tarifficatio and the same trade provision against non-members. But, the both rules have a liberalization of trade in a common as a revoking tariffs and the government regulations for interfering with trade. In this case, however, the both rules include an inconsistency ele ment under WTO rules such as Most-Favoured-Nation Treatment(MFN) and National Treatment on Internal Taxation and Regulation(NTITR). This study reviewed neither inconsistency nor consistency on the both rules with the RTA of WTO under Article XXIV of GATT 1994. The Third analyzed the relations between FTA and Article V of GATS under WTO in the chapter 4. The GATS is a rule of WTO for the growing importance of trade in services for the growth and development of the world conomy. The GATS is a new rule rather than GATT's rule for concerning goods trade. The Article V of GATS under WTO is a rule that makes based on upon the Article XXIV of GATT. Therefore, If it is to be examined the Article V of GATS, it should be referred to a and an interpretation of the text of the Article XXIV of GATT. However, the Article V of GATS is on the undeveloped stage compare to the Article XXIV of GATT. Because, the statistics of WTO showed that the RTAs under the Article XXIV of GATT have 150 cases completed between nations, but the RTAs under the Article IV of GATS have 10 cases completed between nations. The Forth examined the interpretation of FTA rules under WTO in the chapter 5. Concerning the consistency issue of customs unions and free-trade area under the Article XXIV of GATT, the working parties in customs unions and in free-trade area have been reviewed the consistency is sue which had been not if to GATT. However, the parties finished to get up with one accord the both that are a consistency of argument and an inconsistency of argument with the interpretation of the Article XXIV of GATT. The interpretation of the Article XXIV of GATT has been raised as the issues when EEC by Rome Treaty established in 1957. However, the consistency is sue only agreed 6 working parties out of 69 working parties finished the reviewing of the interpretation up to the end of 1994. Also the consistency issue concerned with the special privilege measure of the customs unions and tree-trade area under the Article XXIV of GATT discussed only 3 cases between working parties up to now and did not accepted as an issue for working parties' report. In conclusion in the chapter 6, this study raised the issues of WTO that are a conference of a new round under WTO and the issues of clarity between FTA rule and WTO regulation.

• Geophysics and Geophysical Exploration
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• v.13 no.3
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• pp.268-276
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• 2010

Earthquake Hazard Mitigation Law was activated into force on March 2009. By the law, the obligation to monitor the effect of earthquake on the facilities was extended to many organizations such as gas company and local governments. Based on the estimation of National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), the number of free-surface acceleration stations would be expanded to more than 400. The advent of internet protocol and the more simplified operation have allowed the quick and easy installation of seismic stations. In addition, the dynamic range of seismic instruments has been continuously improved enough to evaluate damage intensity and to alert alarm directly for earthquake hazard mitigation. For direct visualization of damage intensity and area, Real Time Intensity COlor Mapping (RTICOM) is explained in detail. RTICOM would be used to retrieve the essential information for damage evaluation, Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA). Destructive earthquake damage is usually due to surface waves which just follow S wave. The peak amplitude of surface wave would be pre-estimated from the amplitude and frequency content of first arrival P wave. Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) system is conventionally defined to estimate local magnitude from P wave. The status of EEW is reviewed and the application of EEW to Odesan earthquake is exampled with ShakeMap in order to make clear its appearance. In the sense of rapidity, the earthquake announcement of Korea Meteorological Agency (KMA) might be dramatically improved by the adaption of EEW. In order to realize hazard mitigation, EEW should be applied to the local crucial facilities such as nuclear power plants and fragile semi-conduct plant. The distributed EEW is introduced with the application example of Uljin earthquake. Not only Nation-wide but also locally distributed EEW applications, all relevant information is needed to be shared in real time. The plan of extension of Korea Integrated Seismic System (KISS) is briefly explained in order to future cooperation of data sharing and utilization.

• Economic and Environmental Geology
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• v.51 no.2
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• pp.185-201
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• 2018

Nuclear power plants(NPP) are constructed and operated to ensure safety against natural disasters and man-made disasters in all processes including site selection, site survey, design, construction, and operation. This paper will introduce a series of efforts conducted in Korea Hydro and Nuclear Power Co. Ltd., to assure the safety of nuclear power plant against earthquakes and other natural hazards. In particular, the present status of the earthquake, fault, and slope safety monitoring system for nuclear power plants is introduced. A earthquake observatory network for the NPP sites has been built up for nuclear safety and providing adequate seismic design standards for NPP sites by monitoring seismicity in and around NPPs since 1999. The Eupcheon Fault Monitoring System, composed of a strainmeter, seismometer, creepmeter, Global Positioning System, and groundwater meter, was installed to assess the safety of the Wolsung Nuclear Power Plant against earthquakes by monitoring the short- and long-term behavioral characteristics of the Eupcheon fault. Through the analysis of measured data, it was verified that the Eupcheon fault is a relatively stable fault that is not affected by earthquakes occurring around the southeastern part of the Korean peninsula. In addition, it was confirmed that the fault monitoring system could be very useful for seismic safety analysis and earthquake prediction study on the fault. K-SLOPE System for systematic slope monitoring was successfully developed for monitoring of the slope at nuclear power plants. Several kinds of monitoring devices including an inclinometer, tiltmeter, tension-wire, and precipitation gauge were installed on the NPP slope. A macro deformation analysis using terrestrial LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) was performed for overall slope deformation evaluation.