The Effect of Management Coaching on Psychological Safety and Job Commitment

Abstract

Purpose: Workers are expected to perform their tasks and explore differences through innovation. Despite managerial coaching growing attention, limited studies offer information on the effects of managerial coaching towards psychological safety and job commitment. There is a limited empirical study examining managerial coaching efficacy. However, practitioners and researchers have emphasized managerial coaching contribution on improvement of subordinates outcomes. This study intend to fill the research gap on literature regarding managerial coaching, job commitment and psychological safety. Research design, data and methodology: The present research has conducted the literature content analysis which is widely used by numerous prior studies that was already proved as a flexible and straightforward methodology. Results: Based on the textual approach in the past and current literature, the results indicated that the managerial coaching effects on workers job commitment and psychological safety which include workers performance and job satisfaction. As a result, the workers are ready to engage their jobs and improve their performance. Conclusions: The current research concluded that the managers must strive to facilitate employees to earn clarity on their responsibilities and goals and feel psychologically empowered. A leader intending to implement managerial coaching must understand their abilities and the consequences of their actions.

1. Introduction

Most successful manufacturing and managerial capacities do not provide a competitive advantage since they have been internationally standardized. Businesses are attempting to gain a competitive advantage through sustainability-oriented developments. Workers can be developed and engaged through organizational development processes, including coaching can provide a competitive edge (Huang et al., 2015). These tactics have been employed to increase employee abilities and potential through one-on-one connections. Most firms have adopted this approach by implementing comprehensive and concurrent mentoring and coaching.

Coaching integrated development strategies that strengthen subordinate and manager-subordinate relationships. Various coaching methods are reported in scholarly papers, including leadership, peer, and executive coaching. Whereas each approach of coaching serves a distinct role and involves a different connection, they all aim to assist people, groups, or organizations in improving performance and competence (Schaltegger & Wagner, 2011). Managerial coaching is more common than other forms of coaching. Managerial coaching entails line managers acting as coaches to their workers' learning to foster the establishment of a greater work environment. The managers may grow their workers inside the institution by establishing cooperative and horizontal ties. Coaching has lately attained recognition as a style adhered to by managers, and it is used in many businesses.

Mentoring is typically characterized as the relationship of growth between a protege and a mentor with varying degrees of experience and abilities. Mentors are often competent senior professionals with extensive expertise in a certain sector, whereas protégés are thought to have limited abilities and experience. Mentorship might be casual or formal, but the key objectives of mentoring are often vocational help, emotional support, and mentorship. An effective mentor allows the mentee to learn skills and work on tough projects while providing psychological stability and support through companionship. Moreover, when the mentee connects with the leader, people may attempt to emulate their demeanor, ideals, and actions (Kang & Hwang, 2017).

Coaching is recognized for improving workers' job performance while mentoring influences career growth. Mentoring and coaching are well-known methods of facilitating and supporting outstanding workers and achieving the company's long-term objectives. Generally, the employee benefits differently from a supervisor and a non-supervisor coach. Consequently, workers may face complicated obstacles in properly maintaining mentor-protégé and coach-coached relationships (Eby et al., 2013). However, most study on mentoring and coaching in businesses has been undertaken separately, without presenting concurrent or unified perspectives on both activities. While mentoring and coaching are recognized to have similar impacts on employee performance, turnover, commitment, and other aspects, limited research has explored the interplay between managerial coaching concerning job commitment and psychological safety.

The business operating environment is characterized by ambiguity, complexity and volatility, attributed to unprecedented challenges and changes, including information technology innovations and rapid globalization progress. Organizations are expected to meet these business demands to succeed and thrive in the long and in the current operating period. Workers are expected to perform their tasks and explore differences through innovation. Despite managerial coaching growing attention, limited studies offer information on the effects of managerial coaching towards psychological safety and job commitment. There is a limited previous study examining managerial coaching efficacy (Beattie et al., 2014). However, practitioners and researchers have emphasized managerial coaching contribution on improvement of subordinates outcomes. This study intend to fill the gap on literature regarding managerial coaching, job commitment and psychological safety.

Figure 1: The Purpose of the Research

2. Literature Review

2.1. Managerial Coaching

Corporate Several scholars have considered the definition of managerial coaching concerning specific, measurable competencies and skills. Coaching promotes the development and learning of team members. Managerial coaching is argued as a distinct notion that mixes leadership and coaching, and it is viewed as the managers’ coach model that contributes to improving their subordinates' productivity (Hagen & Peterson, 2014). As a result, management coaching is often known as hierarchical coaching. Managerial coaching increasingly is increasingly becoming popular within different organization. Institutions are making efforts towards building internal capacity through training the managers on becoming better coach (McCarthy & Milner, 2013). Managers acting in the role of coach take responsibility of improving employee excellent performance.

Managerial coaching involves a strategy to boost business competitiveness through strengthening relationships between subordinates and superiors and motivating both to perform better. While coaching is often used to uncover an individual's capability to enhance performance, it is not similar to teaching. Kim et al. (2014) argue managerial coaching does not explicitly teach current solutions but encourages self-discovery of the goals the coachee desires to accomplish and facilitates learning. Consequently, mutual trust between the coachee and the coach is vital to coaching efficacy (Kim et al., 2014). Managerial coaching has garnered special emphasis as a critical activity that all managers must conduct.

Several researchers have created proven principles in management coaching for corporate settings. Ellinger et al. (2014) identified several types of managerial coaching traits: providing constructive feedback to employees, using comparisons, inquiring rather than offering direct solutions to employees, thinking through challenges, setting employees' expectations and communicating the broader organizational goals, providing the employees with resources to carry out jobs effectively, empowering staff to broaden their points of view. Kang and Lee (2021) proposed five management competencies for managerial coaching when leaders engage with employees. Among the management coaching competencies are accepting ambiguity, appreciating people, having a team approach, open communication, and developing promotion (Kang & Hwang, 2017). Empirical research on the effectiveness of management coaching has focused on outcome measures such as work satisfaction, performance improvement, quality commitment, motivation, self-efficacy, and employee learning.

2.2. Effect of Managerial Coaching on Workers' Job Commitment

Kang and Hwang (2023) noted that committed workers genuinely desire to be part of an institution or organization. Commitment involves circumstances where workers favor a certain company and its objectives and want to be part of that organization. The willingness of a member to continue with the organization, participation, identity of members with the institution, and emotional ties to the institution are all examples of organizational commitment (Kang & Hwang, 2023). Organizational commitment is one of the significant aspects of organizational performance that might increase work productivity. Commitment allows an organization to survive in a competitive market since the commitment forms owned by employees are essential factors that enable the company's success. Employee loyalty demonstrated their commitment to achieving the intended organization's objectives.

Managers that use coaching managerial approach exhibit empathy and are likely to gain trust, the desire to assist workers in improving, an openness to criticism, and tailored learning, in addition to the view that workers are open to acquiring new knowledge and skills (Berg & Karlsen, 2016). These managers develop trust and excellent connections with their workers, which improve ordinates' pleasant sentiments and work experiences, increasing rational commitment.

These findings align with previous studies regarding member-leader exchange. Mutual respect, excellent communication, and shared vision foster better employee and leader interactions, and the quality of these connections impacts the behavior and attitudes of subordinates and leaders. The social cognitive theory notes that human functioning involves three determinants: performance environment, cognition, and behavior. According to this view, the leadership approach is a crucial external aspect that, although indirectly influencing individual conduct, does impact psychological and cognitive factors indirectly (Rauniyar et al., 2017).

As a result, supervisors with coaching abilities help employees advance while maintaining positive interactions with workers. Berg and Karlsen (2016) note that such leaders use a coaching managerial approach, which involves listening, assisting, providing support, developing, eliminating barriers, and empowering the workers, resulting in quality working experiences. According to the above analysis, this hypothesis was suggested:

H1: Management Coaching is positively related to workers' commitment.

2.3. Effect of Managerial Coaching on Workers' Psychological Safety

Corporate Psychological safety can be identified as a person's view of the repercussions of engaging in interpersonal risks at the workplace (Grailey et al., 2021). It shows an environment where workers focus on fostering a constructive dialogue that averts challenges or risks and facilitates the achievement of a common objective, as it is less inclined to self-protection engagement than in an unsafe environment. Tiwari and Lenka (2016) proposed that in an organizational environment where workers believe themselves to be psychologically secure, they are free to exchange information, take risks and learn to develop their intrapreneurial talents, which would lead to better levels of engagement.

As such, it reflects a belief that people are content being themselves and feel allowed to display and use themselves without avoiding limitations that may result from the jobs, status, or self-image. Leader behaviors help to provide a sense of psychological safety. Managers who are accessible, available to the employees, and open are more likely to encourage the growth of their subordinates (Dollard & Bailey, 2021). Leaders may inspire subordinates to propose new solutions or innovations and engage in risks by conveying the significance of such actions and ensuring that negative repercussions would not arise. Leaders who are accessible, open, and available may express such expectations (Woo & Kang, 2020). Workers are more likely to feel secure to bring up fresh suggestions and accept risks associated with generating ideas that fundamentally deviate from the set standards when they have a listening leader. The leader must listen, be open to new ideas, be eager to debate new ways of attaining objectives and pay attention to opportunities for innovation.

Similarly, when leaders make themselves open and accessible to their staff, they indicate that approaching them is necessary. They are not only accessible but also available to subordinates striving to handle difficulties creatively (Kruzich et al., 2014). There are different psychological safety steps; inclusion, challenger, contributor, and learner safety. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that high-quality interpersonal connections promote the growth of psychological safety (Dollard & Bailey, 2021). Workers established a sense of psychological safety because their leaders appreciated and welcomed their ideas; they were comfortable speaking out and expressing themselves. As a result, this hypothesis was proposed:

H2: managerial coaching positively influences workers' psychological safety

Aranzamendez et al. (2015) identified four antecedents of psychological safety: leadership and organizational standards, group dynamics, and interpersonal interactions. Aside from these contextual considerations, the researcher acknowledged the impact of individual variations and encouraged scholars to study the influence of personality variables on psychological safety. This request has recently been responded to by empirical and theoretical research. Several personality qualities associated with learning, self-expression, and risk-taking have been proposed to influence psychological safety (Biron et al., 2018). A proactive personality, for example, is a quality usually connected with psychological safety because it displays a consistent propensity toward participating in proactive acts that are mostly unaffected by environmental factors. Proactive people take the initiative to address issues, recognize problems, and effect change. As a result, individuals with more dynamic and iterative are less likely to regard a circumstance as psychologically dangerous, even if the environment suggests otherwise. Two major personality traits, openness to new experiences and emotions, have been conceptually connected with psychological safety (Liu et al., 2020). Emotional stable workers can sense a psychologically secure setting since they are secure, relaxed, and calm rather than nervous, hostile, and prone to stress. Individuals receptive to new encounters are also curious and inventive, with a desire for novelty. Individuals open to ideas and diverse methods of conducting activities are more likely to feel secure taking chances and expressing their weaknesses in the workplace. Indeed, research evaluating the influence risk-taking discovered openness is predictive of professional risk-taking (Yin et al., 2020). Learning orientation is a persistent dispositional concept emphasizing gaining competence and creating new abilities. Making errors is a necessary and crucial element of self-development for those with a learning orientation. This situational construct is proven to enhance psychological safety at the group and personal levels.

Figure 2: Two Hypotheses of the Research

3. Research Design

The advantage of qualitative research is its ability to offer in-depth textual descriptions of how individuals perceive events. A wide range of attitudes, customs, and frequently cultural components that people naturally perceive are included in qualitative data. Unlike quantitative research, which merely rationally predicts, quantifies, and presents statistical data, qualitative research attempts to help researchers understand issues and, in doing so, describes variation, relationships, and experiences (Woo & Kang, 2020).

The qualitative method was chosen by the researcher. Because it employs qualitative methodologies, it is more flexible and simpler than quantitative investigations. The advantage of qualitative research is that it is related to the experiences and cultures of the participants. Additionally, research reveals that qualitative research requires the researcher to examine a variety of topics and meanings, which broadens their perspective on the subject under investigation. The information gathered through qualitative research is crucially copious and explanatory (Kang & Hwang, 2017).

Data was gathered by the current researchers from published literature, including important works. We sought to increase legitimacy, thus we largely collected data from peer-reviewed sources using databases. To find research that fits within the parameters of the study, this research also used a literature content analysis. Evidence from systematic reviews was compiled using a checklist known as a content analysis. Although the research used a prior content checklist to make sure that qualifying studies were checked, papers that did not add to this review were not included. Using content analysis has the advantage of assisting the researcher in locating studies free from publication bias, which raises the standard of the study as a whole.Peer-reviewed studies were the primary measures in this study, hence the current researchers excluded conference papers from the analysis. Second, the research included studies that adopted positivist or interpretivism perspectives. The present researchers might then use qualitative tools to assess the obtained text using these important criteria (Richard & Kang, 2018).

4. Findings

4.1. Hypothesis 1

The managerial coaching effects on workers job commitment are analyzed under two factors which include workers performance and job satisfaction.

4.1.1. Effective Management Coaching Improves Workers' Performance

Liu and Batt (2010) demonstrated that the quantity of coaching received by workers each period anticipated performance appraisal increases over time. Furthermore, workers performed better when their boss stressed group incentives and group incentives and when technology was automated. Where supervisors employ group incentives more frequently, technology is less automated, and technical changes are less regular, the favorable association between coaching and performance is higher. According to Raza et al. (2017), management Coaching affects job performance indirectly and directly, as well as corporate citizenship behavior regarding individuals and organizations (through the mediating function of flourishing at work). The study further supports the importance of flourishing at work as a mediating function in the conceptual model.

According to the prior study (Ali et al., 2018), managerial coaching directly impacts workers' work performance. The study demonstrated that management coaching influences job performance indirectly via work turnover intention, engagement, interaction quality between the workers, and job satisfaction. According to the study (Ellinger et al., 2011), organizational social capital investments are positively linked to employee job performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and service quality commitment. These connections, however, are greater at moderate to low levels of management coaching, indicating that a selected rather than full implementation of the developmental method may be more successful. Ribeiro et al. (2020) note that managers' coaching skills improve emotional commitment and individual performance. In addition, Ali et al. (2020) agree managerial coaching positively impacts workers' innovative work approach. The relations between IWBs and Managerial Coaching are mediated through supervisory commitment.

4.1.2. Effective Management Coaching Improves Workers' Job Satisfaction

Kim (2014) revealed backing on basic structural relations, including managerial coaching directly affected employee job satisfaction. In addition, it influenced role clarity, as well as an indirect influence to work satisfaction, organization commitment via work satisfaction, and work performance inconsideration to role clarity. According to Marrone et al. (2022), leaders' boundary-spanning managerial coaching is associated with team member self-efficacy boundary-spanning linked to workers' participation in the boundary-spanning conduct for the organization. Furthermore, workers who indicated high boundary-spanning activity reported higher levels of work satisfaction.

The study had far-reaching consequences for team members, leaders, and companies. According to the past research (Sesen & Ertan, 2022), support and training motivation influence job satisfaction, access and benefits of training have no substantial impact on job commitment, and workplace stress plays a moderating function. Workplace stress moderates the perception of training and job satisfaction. Ladyshewsky and Taplinb (2017) identified five managerial coaching abilities aspects. They affirmed the amended method of assessing coaching skills, noting that a leader's use of managerial coaching ability directly influences employee organizational commitment and learning, in addition to influencing employees' commitment to the organization through personal learning. According to Elmadağ et al. (2008), managerial mentoring has the greatest effect on frontline staff service quality commitment.

Furthermore, the suggested frontline employee loyalty to quality-of-service framework is moderated by management commitment to quality-of-service relative to service workers' commitment towards service quality. Satisfaction improves the worker's commitment to the organization. Ellinger et al. (2011) agree that managerial coaching is employee work performance, dedication to organizational citizenship behavior, and service quality and job satisfaction. Moderate to low levels of managerial coaching strengthens these connections.

4.2. Hypothesis 2

Managerial coaching influence on workers psychological safety will be analyzed under two factors which include learners safety and workers safety.

4.2.1. Managerial Coaching Influence Learners’ Safety

Kim (2022) dives into the complex intermediating mechanisms that underpin the relationship between safety behavior and coaching leadership. To that end, this study attempted to determine the sequential mediating impacts of employee job purpose and organizational support perceived on safety behavior and coaching leadership. This paper discovered that coaching leadership positively influenced safety behavior. Adaption to changes and learning are critical as organizations confront extraordinary change today. However, a crucial element of learning entails publicly disputing assumptions and resolving disagreements at the workplace behaviors that may cause shame or harm. Leaders must create a conducive working environment in which workers feel secure when engaging in interpersonal risks allowing them in acquisition of new information. Ashauer and Macan (2013) discovered that teams with mastery had greater psychological safety than teams with performance objectives directions. The connection between performance and mastery goal directions and learning behavior was mediated by team psychological safety. Managerial coaching is gaining popularity among startups and existing businesses owing to its favorable influence on individuals and companies.

In contrast to earlier research, this study analyzed mentoring higher leadership levels, including the CEO level, and established a link to organizational innovation. Nusair et al. (2012) found that top mentoring executives positively correlate with their opinion of the organization's innovative behavior. The link is mediated through such managers' psychological safety feeling inside the institution. The data also shows that leaders' cognitive flexibility has a negative moderating effect on the connection. According to the previous study (Richard & Kang, 2018), leaders whose characteristic attachment type is based on a need for security are more likely to provide constructive criticism. Leaders with an anxious attachment style avoid giving unfavorable comments to workers that may elicit a negative reaction.

A leader who is not connected with the workers is likelier to provide minimal feedback or unpleasant criticism in a unconstructive, possibly rude, and ego-threatening manner. The attribute attachment type of team members promotes feedback acceptance, which is mediated by psychological safety sense, with trusting relationship style workers gaining from constructive criticism. According to Zhang et al. (2010), the employees’ willingness and intention of sharing information results from their psychological. The amount of trust influences sharing knowledge intention directly, as evidenced by the research, and indirectly via the mediating function of psychological safety. Furthermore, the findings discover that self-consciousness reduces emotions of psychological safety.

4.2.2. Managerial Coaching Influences Workers' Voices

Kim and Hong (2021) argues that employee psychological safety is attributed to leader and member exchange, a major trait of managerial coaching. Yin noted that psychological safety and leader-member exchange moderated the association between employee voice and inclusive leadership. Detert and Burris (2007) evaluated the link between management openness, transformational leadership, and subordinate voice. The researchers noted that employee openness to speak out is influenced by their beliefs on psychological safety, emphasizing the relevance of the managers in subordinate judgments of the hazards of airing their views and opinion.

Furthermore, leadership actions have the greatest influence on the highest-performing worker's voice behavior. Kang and Lee (2021) analyzed psychological safety as a mediator and analyzed when and why coworker information sharing enhances employee voice behavior. In both experiments, Kang and Lee (2021) discovered a favorable indirect association between voice behavior and coworker information sharing through psychological safety. Psychological safety moderates the favorable impacts of coworker information sharing on voice behavior. Chughtai (2016) looked at the function of institutional identity and psychological safety in mediating the link between negative review or feedback seeking approaches and employee voice and servant leadership. The findings argue psychological safety and organizational identity mitigated the effects of negative feedback speaking behavior and servant leadership to some extent. Jolly and Lee (2021) mentioned that hospitality sector's dynamic nature calls for businesses to develop to remain constantly successful. Many improvements and service innovations are inspired by the staff experiences who have firsthand knowledge of what can and doesn't. The study noted that unless the employees are motivated to engage with the leader, they may be resistant to expressing their ideas, practices, and thoughts. Jolly and Lee (2021) hypothesized and found, using basic need satisfaction theory, that managerial coaching behaviors correlate with the filling owners’ fundamental needs for competence and relatedness. Consequently, fulfilling these fundamental demands are linked to employee self-reported employee voice behavior improvements.

Table 1: Prior Studies based on the Hypothesis 1

Table 2: Prior Studies based on the Hypothesis 2

5. Discussions

There are various implications from the study where it provides rationale on the managerial coaching necessity on workers. Organizations must emphasize on the need of managerial coaching and the model of a strategy that it use and create an effective coaching culture. According to our findings, management coaching improves workers' psychological safety in two areas: employee voice behavior and learning. The results indicate that when workers believe their leaders are open to different suggestions for enhancing the work activities to achieve improved practitioner results.

As a result, the workers are ready to engage in interactive relationships; workers feel at ease speaking up instead of withholding their voices. They are more ready to share errors. As a result, nurse managers should attempt to demonstrate inclusive attitudes toward their subordinates, have an ongoing influence on the team, be accessible for advice, initiate meetings, and provide vital information. These management coaching behaviors allow workers to pose questions, address patient safety problems, and create a psychologically secure environment where workers feel motivated to disclose errors.

The leader needs to establish a culture of psychological safety via management coaching by appreciating and respecting their staff's opinions, even if they differ. Furthermore, when higher-level employees may already have a sense of psychological safety, inclusive leaders make lower-level members feel psychologically safe by ensuring that there would be no negative repercussions for raising concerns or reporting errors. A psychologically secure atmosphere encourages learning from failures, so employees are more likely to provide feedback, challenge the system, and contribute new ideas, which may lead to beneficial workplace results.

The findings contribute to a better managerial coaching understanding. They may reduce voice withholding in addition to motivating practitioners to speak out and point out mistakes by creating a psychologically secure environment. As a result, leaders should aggressively encourage open communication among the team members and demonstrate a desire to listen to and act on employee grievances, ideas, and suggestions to improve patient safety. When practitioners believe that speaking out is not hazardous but encourages behaviors, they will reveal errors, question the current regime, and propose solutions to improve care quality and patient safety.

From the findings, managerial coaching is an approach to retain, develop and motivate workers. The findings imply that managerial coaching is necessary for creating job commitment among practitioners. The manager's coaching model influences workers' attitudes and development at work. As for job commitment, it includes the attitudes and behaviors of an employee toward their career. The coaching model should enable favorable for the employees to feel valued by the organization in addition to investing in the staff. The leader should ensure that the coaching approach facilitates employee learning where they can be delegated tasks and undergo training and development programs. From the findings, it is clear that managerial coaching is linked to employee motivation. In this case, the practitioners will be motivated to complete tasks with the support of their leader.

If practitioner is happy with their job, there is a likelihood that they will be contented with the institution they work in and their profession. These factors will result in workers' commitment to the job. The workers are contented with tasks, the organization, and their work and increase their commitment. Managerial coaching will influence the practitioner's job commitment through learning, performance, quality commitment, and self-efficacy.

The research relied on peer-reviewed articles to conclude managerial coaching implications on worker psychological safety and job commitment. Using past research to draw findings is an effective method; however, it subjected this research to several limitations.

The usage of peer-reviewed publications had a significant disadvantage because they did not address the researcher's research objectives or include specific data that the researcher wanted to know. The data could not have been acquired in the proper geographic region or among the precise population the researcher desires to study. Because the researcher did not collect the data, the analysis may be limited, or the question the scholar sought to answer may be altered.

Another difficulty the researcher encountered was that variables might have been categorized or stated differently than they would have desired. Identifying the favorable materials to conclude is rigorous. Another key disadvantage the researcher encountered was that he did not understand how the data collection technique was carried out and how well it was carried out. Consequently, the researcher is frequently ignorant of how critical issues such as respondent misunderstanding or low response to specific survey items impact the findings.

While the research method is adaptive, it might result in inefficiencies and lack of consistency when developing themes based on study data. Making public and applying an epistemological viewpoint that can logically underpin the empirical statements of the study aids in increasing consistency and coherence. The research approach for these studies denied the researcher firsthand information on what the workers and managers felt about the topic under research. Quantitative research could allow the researcher to make tabulations and analyze data scientifically to develop updated findings.

Managers opt for different coaching approaches based on their desired outcomes for workers. According to this study analysis, managerial coaching positively influenced workers' psychological safety and job commitment. Workers will likely improve interpersonal relationships and integrate well with the group dynamics when is a psychologically safe workplace. In addition, the workers will be willing to take risks in their careers and competition for tasks since the environment allows innovativeness and personal development. Psychological safety enables the worker to self-express and share concerns with the management.

On the other hand, managerial coaching fosters job commitment among workers. Job commitment, in this case, is influenced by self-efficacy, performance improvement, commitment toward quality, and employee learning. The study has highlighted the importance of managerial coaching on employees. The leader should have a clear role understanding and greater psychological empowerment. The managers must strive to facilitate employees to earn clarity on their responsibilities and goals and feel psychologically empowered. A leader intending to implement managerial coaching must understand their abilities and the consequences of their actions.

The future study needs to conduct a quantitative study exploring managerial coaching on the worker's psychological safety and job commitment. The study will provide primary data on a specific geographical location to identify the importance of managerial coaching. Managerial coaching involves individual communication and interactions between subordinates and managers; therefore, relationship quality between the parties and personal characteristics. A cross-sectional approach can be used to gather information at a point to prevent claiming causality on the link between the variables. In addition, a longitudinal approach can provide definite implications for the study.