Korean Journal of Radiology

  • 제23권6호
  • /
  • Pages.581-597
  • /
  • 2022
  • /
  • 1229-6929(pISSN)
  • /
  • 2005-8330(eISSN)
대한영상의학회 (The Korean Society of Radiology)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Differential Diagnosis of Thick Myocardium according to Histologic Features Revealed by Multiparametric Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging

  • Min Jae Cha (Department of Radiology, Chung-Ang University Hospital) ;
  • Cherry Kim (Department of Radiology, Korea University Ansan Hospital) ;
  • Chan Ho Park (Department of Radiology, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital) ;
  • Yoo Jin Hong (Department of Radiology and Research Institute of Radiological Science, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine) ;
  • Jae Min Shin (Department of Radiology and Research Institute of Radiological Science, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine) ;
  • Tae Hoon Kim (Department of Radiology and Research Institute of Radiological Science, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine) ;
  • Yoon Jin Cha (Department of Pathology, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine) ;
  • Chul Hwan Park (Department of Radiology and Research Institute of Radiological Science, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine)
  • 투고 : 2021.10.25
  • 심사 : 2022.02.27
  • 발행 : 2022.06.01
PDF 다운로드
⟨ 이전 논문 다음 논문 ⟩

초록

Left ventricular (LV) wall thickening, or LV hypertrophy (LVH), is common and occurs in diverse conditions including hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), hypertensive heart disease, aortic valve stenosis, lysosomal storage disorders, cardiac amyloidosis, mitochondrial cardiomyopathy, sarcoidosis and athlete's heart. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging provides various tissue contrasts and characteristics that reflect histological changes in the myocardium, such as cellular hypertrophy, cardiomyocyte disarray, interstitial fibrosis, extracellular accumulation of insoluble proteins, intracellular accumulation of fat, and intracellular vacuolar changes. Therefore, CMR imaging may be beneficial in establishing a differential diagnosis of LVH. Although various diseases share LV wall thickening as a common feature, the histologic changes that underscore each disease are distinct. This review focuses on CMR multiparametric myocardial analysis, which may provide clues for the differentiation of thickened myocardium based on the histologic features of HCM and its phenocopies.

키워드

과제정보

The authors wish to thank Ms. Inseon Park for all artistic support related to this work.

참고문헌

  1. Levy D, Anderson KM, Savage DD, Kannel WB, Christiansen JC, Castelli WP. Echocardiographically detected left ventricular hypertrophy: prevalence and risk factors. The Framingham Heart Study. Ann Intern Med 1988;108:7-13 https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-108-1-7
  2. Hansen MW, Merchant N. MRI of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: part I, MRI appearances. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007;189:1335-1343 https://doi.org/10.2214/AJR.07.2286
  3. Maron BJ, Gardin JM, Flack JM, Gidding SS, Kurosaki TT, Bild DE. Prevalence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in a general population of young adults. Echocardiographic analysis of 4111 subjects in the CARDIA Study. Coronary artery risk development in (young) adults. Circulation 1995;92:785-789 https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.92.4.785
  4. Mendez C, Soler R, Rodriguez E, Barriales R, Ochoa JP, Monserrat L. Differential diagnosis of thickened myocardium: an illustrative MRI review. Insights Imaging 2018;9:695-707 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13244-018-0655-9
  5. Hansen MW, Merchant N. MRI of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: part 2, differential diagnosis, risk stratification, and posttreatment MRI appearances. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007;189:1344-1352 https://doi.org/10.2214/AJR.07.2287
  6. Lorell BH, Carabello BA. Left ventricular hypertrophy: pathogenesis, detection, and prognosis. Circulation 2000;102:470-479 https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.102.4.470
  7. Giesbrandt KJ, Bolan CW, Shapiro BP, Edwards WD, Mergo PJ. Diffuse diseases of the myocardium: MRI-pathologic review of nondilated cardiomyopathies. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2013;200:W266-W273 https://doi.org/10.2214/AJR.12.9633
  8. Varma PK, Neema PK. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: part 1 - introduction, pathology and pathophysiology. Ann Card Anaesth 2014;17:118-124
  9. Saremi F, Sanchez-Quintana D, Mori S, Muresian H, Spicer DE, Hassani C, et al. Fibrous skeleton of the heart: anatomic overview and evaluation of pathologic conditions with CT and MR imaging. Radiographics 2017;37:1330-1351 https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.2017170004
  10. Maron BJ. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a systematic review. JAMA 2002;287:1308-1320 https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.287.10.1308
  11. O'Hanlon R, Pennell DJ. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in the evaluation of hypertrophic and infiltrative cardiomyopathies. Heart Fail Clin 2009;5:369-387, vi https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hfc.2009.02.003
  12. Semsarian C, Ingles J, Maron MS, Maron BJ. New perspectives on the prevalence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2015;65:1249-1254 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2015.01.019
  13. Klues HG, Schiffers A, Maron BJ. Phenotypic spectrum and patterns of left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: morphologic observations and significance as assessed by two-dimensional echocardiography in 600 patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;26:1699-1708 https://doi.org/10.1016/0735-1097(95)00390-8
  14. Noureldin RA, Liu S, Nacif MS, Judge DP, Halushka MK, Abraham TP, et al. The diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy by cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2012;14:17
  15. O'Hanlon R, Assomull RG, Prasad SK. Use of cardiovascular magnetic resonance for diagnosis and management in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Curr Cardiol Rep 2007;9:51-56 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-007-0010-0
  16. Baxi AJ, Restrepo CS, Vargas D, Marmol-Velez A, Ocazionez D, Murillo H. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy from A to Z: genetics, pathophysiology, imaging, and management. Radiographics 2016;36:335-354 https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.2016150137
  17. Elliott PM, Anastasakis A, Borger MA, Borggrefe M, Cecchi F, Charron P, et al. 2014 ESC Guidelines on diagnosis and management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: the Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2014;35:2733-2779 https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehu284
  18. Burrage MK, Ferreira VM. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance for the differentiation of left ventricular hypertrophy. Curr Heart Fail Rep 2020;17:192-204 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11897-020-00481-z
  19. Quarta G, Aquaro GD, Pedrotti P, Pontone G, Dellegrottaglie S, Iacovoni A, et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: the importance of clinical context. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 2018;19:601-610 https://doi.org/10.1093/ehjci/jex323
  20. Bruder O, Wagner A, Jensen CJ, Schneider S, Ong P, Kispert EM, et al. Myocardial scar visualized by cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging predicts major adverse events in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010;56:875-887 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2010.05.007
  21. Mentias A, Raeisi-Giglou P, Smedira NG, Feng K, Sato K, Wazni O, et al. Late gadolinium enhancement in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and preserved systolic function. J Am Coll Cardiol 2018;72:857-870 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2018.05.060
  22. Mewton N, Liu CY, Croisille P, Bluemke D, Lima JA. Assessment of myocardial fibrosis with cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011;57:891-903 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2010.11.013
  23. Hinojar R, Varma N, Child N, Goodman B, Jabbour A, Yu CY, et al. T1 mapping in discrimination of hypertrophic phenotypes: hypertensive heart disease and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: findings from the international T1 multicenter cardiovascular magnetic resonance study. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2015;8:e003285
  24. Axelsson Raja A, Farhad H, Valente AM, Couce JP, Jefferies JL, Bundgaard H, et al. Prevalence and progression of late gadolinium enhancement in children and adolescents with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2018;138:782-792 https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.032966
  25. Xu J, Zhuang B, Sirajuddin A, Li S, Huang J, Yin G, et al. MRI T1 mapping in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: evaluation in patients without late gadolinium enhancement and hemodynamic obstruction. Radiology 2020;294:275-286 https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2019190651
  26. Huang L, Ran L, Zhao P, Tang D, Han R, Ai T, et al. MRI native T1 and T2 mapping of myocardial segments in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: tissue remodeling manifested prior to structure changes. Br J Radiol 2019;92:20190634
  27. Gommans DHF, Cramer GE, Bakker J, Dieker HJ, Michels M, Fouraux MA, et al. High T2-weighted signal intensity for risk prediction of sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging 2018;34:113-120 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10554-017-1252-6
  28. Neisius U, Myerson L, Fahmy AS, Nakamori S, El-Rewaidy H, Joshi G, et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance feature tracking strain analysis for discrimination between hypertensive heart disease and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. PLoS One 2019;14:e0221061
  29. Rodrigues JC, Rohan S, Ghosh Dastidar A, Harries I, Lawton CB, Ratcliffe LE, et al. Hypertensive heart disease versus hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: multi-parametric cardiovascular magnetic resonance discriminators when end-diastolic wall thickness ≥ 15 mm. Eur Radiol 2017;27:1125-1135 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-016-4468-2
  30. Sipola P, Magga J, Husso M, Jaaskelainen P, Peuhkurinen K, Kuusisto J. Cardiac MRI assessed left ventricular hypertrophy in differentiating hypertensive heart disease from hypertrophic cardiomyopathy attributable to a sarcomeric gene mutation. Eur Radiol 2011;21:1383-1389 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-011-2065-y
  31. Maceira AM, Mohiaddin RH. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in systemic hypertension. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2012;14:28
  32. Carbone A, D'Andrea A, Riegler L, Scarafile R, Pezzullo E, Martone F, et al. Cardiac damage in athlete's heart: when the "supernormal" heart fails! World J Cardiol 2017;9:470-480 https://doi.org/10.4330/wjc.v9.i6.470
  33. Rudolph A, Abdel-Aty H, Bohl S, Boye P, Zagrosek A, Dietz R, et al. Noninvasive detection of fibrosis applying contrast-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance in different forms of left ventricular hypertrophy relation to remodeling. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009;53:284-291 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2008.08.064
  34. Puntmann VO, Jahnke C, Gebker R, Schnackenburg B, Fox KF, Fleck E, et al. Usefulness of magnetic resonance imaging to distinguish hypertensive and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 2010;106:1016-1022 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2010.05.036
  35. Wu LM, Wu R, Ou YR, Chen BH, Yao QY, Lu Q, et al. Fibrosis quantification in hypertensive heart disease with LVH and non-LVH: findings from T1 mapping and contrast-free cardiac diffusion-weighted imaging. Sci Rep 2017;7:559
  36. Kato TS, Noda A, Izawa H, Yamada A, Obata K, Nagata K, et al. Discrimination of nonobstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy from hypertensive left ventricular hypertrophy on the basis of strain rate imaging by tissue Doppler ultrasonography. Circulation 2004;110:3808-3814 https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000150334.69355.00
  37. Nkomo VT, Gardin JM, Skelton TN, Gottdiener JS, Scott CG, Enriquez-Sarano M. Burden of valvular heart diseases: a population-based study. Lancet 2006;368:1005-1011 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69208-8
  38. Hein S, Arnon E, Kostin S, Schonburg M, Elsasser A, Polyakova V, et al. Progression from compensated hypertrophy to failure in the pressure-overloaded human heart: structural deterioration and compensatory mechanisms. Circulation 2003;107:984-991 https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000051865.66123.B7
  39. Dweck MR, Joshi S, Murigu T, Gulati A, Alpendurada F, Jabbour A, et al. Left ventricular remodeling and hypertrophy in patients with aortic stenosis: insights from cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2012;14:50
  40. Grossman W. Cardiac hypertrophy: useful adaptation or pathologic process? Am J Med 1980;69:576-584 https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(80)90471-4
  41. Debry N, Marechaux S, Rusinaru D, Peltier M, Messika-Zeitoun D, Menet A, et al. Prognostic significance of left ventricular concentric remodelling in patients with aortic stenosis. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2017;110:26-34 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acvd.2016.05.010
  42. Dweck MR, Joshi S, Murigu T, Alpendurada F, Jabbour A, Melina G, et al. Midwall fibrosis is an independent predictor of mortality in patients with aortic stenosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011;58:1271-1279 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2011.03.064
  43. Krayenbuehl HP, Hess OM, Monrad ES, Schneider J, Mall G, Turina M. Left ventricular myocardial structure in aortic valve disease before, intermediate, and late after aortic valve replacement. Circulation 1989;79:744-755 https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.79.4.744
  44. Singh A, Horsfield MA, Bekele S, Khan JN, Greiser A, McCann GP. Myocardial T1 and extracellular volume fraction measurement in asymptomatic patients with aortic stenosis: reproducibility and comparison with age-matched controls. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 2015;16:763-770 https://doi.org/10.1093/ehjci/jev007
  45. Treibel TA, Kozor R, Schofield R, Benedetti G, Fontana M, Bhuva AN, et al. Reverse myocardial remodeling following valve replacement in patients with aortic stenosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2018;71:860-871 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2017.12.035
  46. Everett RJ, Treibel TA, Fukui M, Lee H, Rigolli M, Singh A, et al. Extracellular myocardial volume in patients with aortic stenosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2020;75:304-316 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2019.11.032
  47. Park SJ, Cho SW, Kim SM, Ahn J, Carriere K, Jeong DS, et al. Assessment of myocardial fibrosis using multimodality imaging in severe aortic stenosis: comparison with histologic fibrosis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2019;12:109-119 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmg.2018.05.028
  48. Hwang JW, Kim SM, Park SJ, Cho EJ, Kim EK, Chang SA, et al. Assessment of reverse remodeling predicted by myocardial deformation on tissue tracking in patients with severe aortic stenosis: a cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging study. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2017;19:80
  49. Musa TA, Uddin A, Swoboda PP, Fairbairn TA, Dobson LE, Singh A, et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance evaluation of symptomatic severe aortic stenosis: association of circumferential myocardial strain and mortality. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2017;19:13
  50. Kim MY, Park EA, Lee W, Lee SP. Cardiac magnetic resonance feature tracking in aortic stenosis: exploration of strain parameters and prognostic value in asymptomatic patients with preserved ejection fraction. Korean J Radiol 2020;21:268-279 https://doi.org/10.3348/kjr.2019.0441
  51. Yogasundaram H, Kim D, Oudit O, Thompson RB, Weidemann F, Oudit GY. Clinical features, diagnosis, and management of patients with Anderson-Fabry cardiomyopathy. Can J Cardiol 2017;33:883-897 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2017.04.015
  52. El-Abassi R, Singhal D, England JD. Fabry's disease. J Neurol Sci 2014;344:5-19 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2014.06.029
  53. Zarate YA, Hopkin RJ. Fabry's disease. Lancet 2008;372:1427-1435 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61589-5
  54. Wu JC, Ho CY, Skali H, Abichandani R, Wilcox WR, Banikazemi M, et al. Cardiovascular manifestations of Fabry disease: relationships between left ventricular hypertrophy, disease severity, and alpha-galactosidase A activity. Eur Heart J 2010;31:1088-1097 https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehp588
  55. Mathur S, Dreisbach JG, Karur GR, Iwanochko RM, Morel CF, Wasim S, et al. Loss of base-to-apex circumferential strain gradient assessed by cardiovascular magnetic resonance in Fabry disease: relationship to T1 mapping, late gadolinium enhancement and hypertrophy. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2019;21:45
  56. Moon JC, Sachdev B, Elkington AG, McKenna WJ, Mehta A, Pennell DJ, et al. Gadolinium enhanced cardiovascular magnetic resonance in Anderson-Fabry disease. Evidence for a disease specific abnormality of the myocardial interstitium. Eur Heart J 2003;24:2151-2155 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehj.2003.09.017
  57. Karur GR, Robison S, Iwanochko RM, Morel CF, Crean AM, Thavendiranathan P, et al. Use of myocardial T1 mapping at 3.0 T to differentiate Anderson-Fabry disease from hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Radiology 2018;288:398-406 https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2018172613
  58. Pica S, Sado DM, Maestrini V, Fontana M, White SK, Treibel T, et al. Reproducibility of native myocardial T1 mapping in the assessment of Fabry disease and its role in early detection of cardiac involvement by cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2014;16:99
  59. Sado DM, White SK, Piechnik SK, Banypersad SM, Treibel T, Captur G, et al. Identification and assessment of Anderson-Fabry disease by cardiovascular magnetic resonance noncontrast myocardial T1 mapping. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2013;6:392-398 https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.112.000070
  60. Camporeale A, Pieroni M, Pieruzzi F, Lusardi P, Pica S, Spada M, et al. Predictors of clinical evolution in prehypertrophic Fabry disease. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2019;12:e008424
  61. Weidemann F, Niemann M, Stork S, Breunig F, Beer M, Sommer C, et al. Long-term outcome of enzyme-replacement therapy in advanced Fabry disease: evidence for disease progression towards serious complications. J Intern Med 2013;274:331-341 https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12077
  62. Nordin S, Kozor R, Medina-Menacho K, Abdel-Gadir A, Baig S, Sado DM, et al. Proposed stages of myocardial phenotype development in Fabry disease. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2019;12:1673-1683 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmg.2018.03.020
  63. Banypersad SM, Moon JC, Whelan C, Hawkins PN, Wechalekar AD. Updates in cardiac amyloidosis: a review. J Am Heart Assoc 2012;1:e000364
  64. Fontana M, Banypersad SM, Treibel TA, Abdel-Gadir A, Maestrini V, Lane T, et al. Differential myocyte responses in patients with cardiac transthyretin amyloidosis and light-chain amyloidosis: a cardiac MR imaging study. Radiology 2015;277:388-397 https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2015141744
  65. Oda S, Kidoh M, Nagayama Y, Takashio S, Usuku H, Ueda M, et al. Trends in diagnostic imaging of cardiac amyloidosis: emerging knowledge and concepts. Radiographics 2020;40:961-981 https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.2020190069
  66. Izumiya Y, Takashio S, Oda S, Yamashita Y, Tsujita K. Recent advances in diagnosis and treatment of cardiac amyloidosis. J Cardiol 2018;71:135-143 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jjcc.2017.10.003
  67. Maleszewski JJ. Cardiac amyloidosis: pathology, nomenclature, and typing. Cardiovasc Pathol 2015;24:343-350 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carpath.2015.07.008
  68. Philippakis AA, Falk RH. Cardiac amyloidosis mimicking hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with obstruction: treatment with disopyramide. Circulation 2012;125:1821-1824 https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.064246
  69. Pozo E, Kanwar A, Deochand R, Castellano JM, Naib T, Pazos-Lopez P, et al. Cardiac magnetic resonance evaluation of left ventricular remodelling distribution in cardiac amyloidosis. Heart 2014;100:1688-1695 https://doi.org/10.1136/heartjnl-2014-305710
  70. Martinez-Naharro A, Treibel TA, Abdel-Gadir A, Bulluck H, Zumbo G, Knight DS, et al. Magnetic resonance in transthyretin cardiac amyloidosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017;70:466-477 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2017.05.053
  71. Fattori R, Rocchi G, Celletti F, Bertaccini P, Rapezzi C, Gavelli G. Contribution of magnetic resonance imaging in the differential diagnosis of cardiac amyloidosis and symmetric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am Heart J 1998;136:824-830 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8703(98)70127-9
  72. Kim JY, Hong YJ, Han K, Lee HJ, Hur J, Kim YJ, et al. Regional amyloid burden differences evaluated using quantitative cardiac MRI in patients with cardiac amyloidosis. Korean J Radiol 2021;22:880-889 https://doi.org/10.3348/kjr.2020.0579
  73. Haaf P, Garg P, Messroghli DR, Broadbent DA, Greenwood JP, Plein S. Cardiac T1 mapping and extracellular volume (ECV) in clinical practice: a comprehensive review. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2016;18:89
  74. Gillmore JD, Maurer MS, Falk RH, Merlini G, Damy T, Dispenzieri A, et al. Nonbiopsy diagnosis of cardiac transthyretin amyloidosis. Circulation 2016;133:2404-2412 https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.021612
  75. Ruberg FL, Miller EJ. Nuclear tracers for transthyretin cardiac amyloidosis: time to bone up? Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2013;6:162-164 https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.113.000178
  76. Florian A, Ludwig A, Stubbe-Drager B, Boentert M, Young P, Waltenberger J, et al. Characteristic cardiac phenotypes are detected by cardiovascular magnetic resonance in patients with different clinical phenotypes and genotypes of mitochondrial myopathy. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2015;17:40
  77. Dimmock DP, Lawlor MW. Presentation and diagnostic evaluation of mitochondrial disease. Pediatr Clin North Am 2017;64:161-171 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2016.08.011
  78. Kuno T, Imaeda S, Asakawa Y, Nakamura H, Takemura G, Asahara D, et al. Mitochondrial cardiomyopathy presenting as dilated phase of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy diagnosed with histological and genetic analyses. Case Rep Cardiol 2017;2017:9473917
  79. Partington SL, Givertz MM, Gupta S, Kwong RY. Cardiac magnetic resonance aids in the diagnosis of mitochondrial cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2011;123:e227-e229 https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.973305
  80. Nakanishi M, Harada M, Tadamura E, Kotani H, Kawakami R, Kuwahara K, et al. Images in cardiovascular medicine. Mitochondrial cardiomyopathy evaluated with cardiac magnetic resonance. Circulation 2007;116:e25-e26 https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.691808
  81. Dubrey SW, Falk RH. Diagnosis and management of cardiac sarcoidosis. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2010;52:336-346 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2009.11.010
  82. Iwai K, Tachibana T, Takemura T, Matsui Y, Kitaichi M, Kawabata Y. Pathological studies on sarcoidosis autopsy. I. Epidemiological features of 320 cases in Japan. Acta Pathol Jpn 1993;43:372-376
  83. Birnie DH, Nery PB, Ha AC, Beanlands RS. Cardiac sarcoidosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2016;68:411-421 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2016.03.605
  84. Sadek MM, Yung D, Birnie DH, Beanlands RS, Nery PB. Corticosteroid therapy for cardiac sarcoidosis: a systematic review. Can J Cardiol 2013;29:1034-1041 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2013.02.004
  85. Birnie DH, Sauer WH, Bogun F, Cooper JM, Culver DA, Duvernoy CS, et al. HRS expert consensus statement on the diagnosis and management of arrhythmias associated with cardiac sarcoidosis. Heart Rhythm 2014;11:1305-1323 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrthm.2014.03.043
  86. Jeudy J, Burke AP, White CS, Kramer GB, Frazier AA. Cardiac sarcoidosis: the challenge of radiologic-pathologic correlation: from the radiologic pathology archives. Radiographics 2015;35:657-679 https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.2015140247
  87. Dabir D, Meyer D, Kuetting D, Luetkens J, Homsi R, Pizarro C, et al. Diagnostic value of cardiac magnetic resonance strain analysis for detection of cardiac sarcoidosis. Rofo 2018;190:712-721 https://doi.org/10.1055/a-0598-5099
  88. Vignaux O, Dhote R, Duboc D, Blanche P, Devaux JY, Weber S, et al. Detection of myocardial involvement in patients with sarcoidosis applying T2-weighted, contrast-enhanced, and cine magnetic resonance imaging: initial results of a prospective study. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2002;26:762-767 https://doi.org/10.1097/00004728-200209000-00017
  89. Greulich S, Kitterer D, Latus J, Aguor E, Steubing H, Kaesemann P, et al. Comprehensive cardiovascular magnetic resonance assessment in patients with sarcoidosis and preserved left ventricular ejection fraction. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2016;9:e005022
  90. Puntmann VO, Isted A, Hinojar R, Foote L, Carr-White G, Nagel E. T1 and T2 mapping in recognition of early cardiac involvement in systemic sarcoidosis. Radiology 2017;285:63-72 https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2017162732
  91. Youssef G, Leung E, Mylonas I, Nery P, Williams K, Wisenberg G, et al. The use of 18F-FDG PET in the diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis: a systematic review and metaanalysis including the Ontario experience. J Nucl Med 2012;53:241-248 https://doi.org/10.2967/jnumed.111.090662
  92. Pluim BM, Zwinderman AH, van der Laarse A, van der Wall EE. The athlete's heart. A meta-analysis of cardiac structure and function. Circulation 2000;101:336-344 https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.101.3.336
  93. Maron BJ, Pelliccia A. The heart of trained athletes: cardiac remodeling and the risks of sports, including sudden death. Circulation 2006;114:1633-1644 https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.613562
  94. Bernardo BC, Weeks KL, Pretorius L, McMullen JR. Molecular distinction between physiological and pathological cardiac hypertrophy: experimental findings and therapeutic strategies. Pharmacol Ther 2010;128:191-227 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2010.04.005
  95. Basavarajaiah S, Wilson M, Whyte G, Shah A, McKenna W, Sharma S. Prevalence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in highly trained athletes: relevance to pre-participation screening. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;51:1033-1039 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2007.10.055
  96. Scharhag J, Schneider G, Urhausen A, Rochette V, Kramann B, Kindermann W. Athlete's heart: right and left ventricular mass and function in male endurance athletes and untrained individuals determined by magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;40:1856-1863 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(02)02478-6
  97. Lauschke J, Maisch B. Athlete's heart or hypertrophic cardiomyopathy? Clin Res Cardiol 2009;98:80-88 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00392-008-0721-2
  98. Giusca S, Steen H, Montenbruck M, Patel AR, Pieske B, Erley J, et al. Multi-parametric assessment of left ventricular hypertrophy using late gadolinium enhancement, T1 mapping and strain-encoded cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2021;23:92
  99. McDiarmid AK, Swoboda PP, Erhayiem B, Lancaster RE, Lyall GK, Broadbent DA, et al. Athletic cardiac adaptation in males is a consequence of elevated myocyte mass. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2016;9:e003579
  100. Swoboda PP, McDiarmid AK, Erhayiem B, Broadbent DA, Dobson LE, Garg P, et al. Assessing myocardial extracellular volume by T1 mapping to distinguish hypertrophic cardiomyopathy from athlete's heart. J Am Coll Cardiol 2016;67:2189-2190 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2016.02.054