1. Introduction
This research started from an interesting phenomenon that Orion Chocopie took in marketing in China, Japan and Korea. Orion Chocopie’s signature is 情(jung) that commonly understood and sympathized with all Korean. However while selling Chocopie in China and Japan 情(jung) which is written in Chinese character therefore could be understood in all three countries, similar sympathy were not shared with in Chines and Japanese. So Orion took differential Chinese character for each country differently, 仁(in) for China and 美(me) for Japan, as signature matching common sympathy shared in each country. This research was stared from interrogative idea that ‘If common sympathy of three countries is different than how about preferred leadership? Or leadership influence? Or managing employees?’ Simply, are Korea, China and Japan similar or different?
These three eastern Asia countries have profound and everlasting interaction and interdependency of history in politics, economy, society and culture. Northeastern Asia tripartite shared commonness like use of Chinese character and chopsticks, eat steamed rice, Buddhism bases, etc. Also increase of economic interdependency and similarity. But also northeastern Asia tripartite always had encountered conflict of interest in economy, politics and historic interpretation. In 1999 of the ASEAN+3 Summit, the Japanese Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi proposed three countries leaders to joined meeting for sideline. This meeting is the first step for Korea, China and Japan to developing the trilateral cooperation and its framework suggestion of FTA(Free Trade Agreement) among three countries. From 2003 to 2009 civil research has been continued and from 2009 to 2011 industry-government-academic research has been continued.
Since November 2012, China-Japan-Korea FTA negotiations were launched and 13th negotiations have continued and still ongoing. Researches about these three countries are mostly about specific area(Handfield & Withers, 1993; Wang & Mauzerall, 2004; Lin, 2008; Zhao, 2009; Hanibuchi, Nakaya, & Murata, 2010; Park et al., 2012; Yi & Su, 2015; Kim, 2016; Yoo, 2016; Chapman, Fujii, & Managi, 2018; Zhang, 2018), economic(Jing-rong, 2006; Kang, 2008; Lee, Koo, & Park, 2008; Aoki, 2013; Kim, 2018), political(Aspalter, 2001; Dadabaev, 2018) perspective studies. Some are about culture(Yi, Coale, Choe, Zhiwu, & Li 1994; Kim, Won, Liu, Liu, & Kitanishi, 1997; Zhang, Lin, Nonaka, & Beom, 2005; Oshio, Nozaki, & Kobayashi, 2010; Oshio, 2011; Reyes, 2018), marketing(Keown, Jacobs, Schmidt, & Ghymn, 1992) or customer(Tellis, Yin, & Bell, 2009; Yu & Ko, 2012; Oh & See, 2012) perspective studies. Considering the increase in exchange or sharing human resource in the future there are more need in employee management(Alston, 1989; Rowley, Benson, & Warner, 2004; Kim, Wang, Kondo, & Kim, 2007; Cooke, 2010; Kiyota, 2016; Kim, 2018) research field.
This research’s purpose is to give managerial implication about difference or/and similarity to Korea, China and Japan employee management. To do that this research focus on relationship analysis among transformational leadership, job satisfaction and turnover intention of Korea, China and Japan employees. Research includes two research questions. One, how is the relationship among transformational leadership, job satisfaction and turnover intention. Does job satisfaction mediate between transformational leadership and turnover intention fully or partially? Second, when managing employee of Korea, China and Japan, are they similar or different. Does country matter?
2. Theoretical Background and Hypotheses Setting
2.1. Transformational Leadership
According to Herzberg’s two factor theory also known as motivator-hygiene theory, which is one of many psychological and management theories exist regarding job satisfaction and turnover intention, states that positive feeling and negative feeling are driven by different factors-motivation and hygiene factor(Hackman & Oldham, 1976). This research focused on positive side; motivation. Hanibuchi et al.(2010) say that people want to perform due to those aspects of the job, and provide people with satisfaction. These motivating factors are considered to be intrinsic to the job, or the works continue(Aristovnik & Jaklič, 2013). In this research transformational leadership is considered as motivating factor. Transformational leadership concept started with Weber, T. then Burns, J. M. and latter Bass, B. M. established as classified leadership model by criticizing transaction leadership and suggest different role of leader.
Transaction leadership is making clear suggestion to subordinate about each expectation and responsibility, setting goal and cost or reward of their behavior. Transformational leadership is to increase subordinate awareness about importance of purpose and meaning, make workers work for not only themselves but also for group, organization and overall. Transaction leader appeal on person’s rationality and logic but transformational leader appeal on emotion and feeling of person. Transaction leader motivate subordinate by exchange and negotiation and transformational leader motivate subordinate by making fundamental change of desire to be a better human. Transaction leadership wangle subordinate to get expected result however transformational leadership blag subordinate to do more than expectation. This study considered transformational leadership to consider employees value like Chocopie’s commonly understood and sympathized.
2.2. Turnover Intention
One of the important issues in managing sustainable human resource management(HRM) is how to lower turnover or turnover intention. Therefore knowing what influence turnover or turnover intention is important. Turnover is opposite concept of employment, it means giving up membership of belong and monetary reward or organization and stopping current job and move to other job or organization voluntary. Turnover intention is pre-turnover phase that employee has intention of terminating job voluntary. Turnover intention is important because there is high possibility that attitude of turnover might extend to real turnover(Sun & Wang, 2017). Turnover generates cost and risk to organization. Cost includes leaving, replacement and transition cost, etc. Risk includes loss of production, reduction of performance, unnecessary overtime and low morale to remain workers, etc. Therefore in management, lowing turnover and turnover intention is important.
2.3. Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is personal satisfaction of their job or work. It’s one of the job related attitude. There are diverse definition of job satisfaction, in general, its positive emotional result after assessing about their job; organization, work and working conditions. Interest of job satisfaction begins with Hawthone’s research about productive incensement of employee later Taylor’s scientific management. Approach to job satisfaction can be made by two ways, comprehensive and sectional. Comprehensive approach is overall satisfaction of job and sectional approach divide diverse facets of job such as promotion opportunity, reward, etc. Also motivation of job satisfaction can consider intrinsic such as achievement and aiming of goal and extrinsic such as reward, policy of company, management style, etc. Job satisfaction can be indicative of work behavior such as turnover(Saari & Judge, 2004) and turnover intention(Cohen & Golan, 2007). There could be diverse reason of turnover intention however one of the important influencer is job satisfaction.
2.4. Hypotheses
Relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction show positive continuously both correlation and causal. First for correlation, Medley and Larochelle(1995) studied nurse of US show overall transformation leadership and job satisfaction specially professional status, interaction, organizational policy and autonomy have positive correlation. However study included factor analysis transformation leadership as charisma, individual consideration, intellectual stimulation however analysis correlation as overall transformation. Munir et al.(2012) studied academic staff of Malaysia show job satisfaction and all of transformational leadership; idealized influence, individualized consideration, inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation have positive correlation. Second for causal, in some studies transformational leadership was analyzed as one overall transformation leadership(Nasreen & Mehmood, 2018) and other studies used multiple dimensions(Hanaysha et al., 2012; Bayram & Dinc, 2015; Puni et al., 2016; Lim et al., 2017). There is discordance in multiple dimensions influence on job satisfaction, need more analysis as in this research. Hanaysha et al.(2012) studied university staff of Malaysia show transformation leadership of intellectual simulation increased job satisfaction. Yet individual consideration decreased it and charism was not significant enough. Bayram and Dinc(2015) studied academic and administrative staff of Bosnian and Herzegovina show that transformational leadership of idealized influence of behavior and inspirational motivation give positive influence on job satisfaction yet idealized influence of attributed, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration were not significant enough. Puni et al.(2016) studied bank employees of Ghana show all transformational leadership of idealized influence, intellectual simulation, inspirational motivation and individual consideration give positive influence on job satisfaction. Lim et al.(2017) studied Finance Shared Service Center(SSC) of Malaysia show overall transformational leadership increased job satisfaction.
Following hypotheses are formulated based on above literature review.
[Hypothesis 1] Transformational leadership positively influences on job satisfaction
[H1-1] Idealized influence positively influences on job satisfaction.
[H1-2] Inspirational motivation positively influences on job satisfaction.
[H1-3] Intellectual stimulation positively influences on job satisfaction.
[H1-4] Individual consideration positively influences on job satisfaction.
Influence of transformational leadership on turnover intention show negative continuously. Unlike job satisfaction literature above, most of turnover studies used transformational leadership was analyzed as one overall transformation leadership. Therefore, need multiple dimensions’ approach as in this research. Ariyabuddhiphongs and Kahn(2017) studied employees of café in Thailand show overall transformational leadership decrease turnover intention directly and also mediated influence by trust and job performance. Lim et al. (2017) studied Finance Shared Service Center(SSC) of Malaysia show overall transformational leadership increased job satisfaction and organizational commitment then job satisfaction and organizational commitment decreased turnover intention. Transformational leadership’s direct influence on turnover intention was not significant. Sun and Wang(2017) studied relationship among transformational leadership, collaborative culture, turnover intention and actual turnover of elementary and middle school teacher of US. Result shows that overall transformational leadership decrease turnover intention and actual turnover. Pravichai and Ariyabuddhiphongs(2018) studied bank employees of Thailand show overall transformation leadership directly decrease turnover intention. And transformation leadership’s influence on turnover intention is mediate by right speech and trust in the leader too.
Following hypotheses are formulated based on above literature review.
[Hypothesis 2] Transformational leadership negatively influences turnover intention.
[H2-1] Idealized influence negatively influences turnover intention.
[H2-2] Inspirational motivation negatively influences turnover intention.
[H2-3] Intellectual stimulation negatively influences turnover intention.
[H2-4] Individual consideration negatively influences turnover intention.
It is well known and accepted that the influence of job satisfaction on turnover intention show negative continuously. In Rubenstein, Eberly, Lee, & Mitchell, (2018)’s meta-analysis study of employee turnover, 107625 studies analyzed relationship between job satisfaction on turnover intention and show negative influence. Also in Lim et al. (2017) studied Finance Shared Service Center(SSC) of Malaysia show overall transformational leadership increased job satisfaction and organizational commitment then job satisfaction and organizational commitment decreased turnover intention. Especially job satisfaction show statistically significant mediating role between transformational leadership and turnover intention.
Following hypotheses are formulated based on above literature review.
[Hypothesis 3] Job satisfaction mediates between transformational leadership and turnover intention.
[H3-1] Job satisfaction mediates between idealized influence and turnover intention.
[H3-2] Job satisfaction mediates between inspirational motivations and turnover intention.
[H3-3] Job satisfaction mediates between intellectual stimulation and turnover intention.
[H3-4] Job satisfaction mediates between individual considerations and turnover intention.
There are not many comparative researches of Korea, China and Japan in employee management field(Alston, 1989; Rowley et al., 2004; Kim et al., 2007; Cooke, 2010; Kiyota, 2016; Kim, 2018). And only a handful of research analyzed statistically(Kim et al., 2007; Kim, 2018). Alston(1989) studied managerial principles of three countries; wa for Japan, guanxi for China and inhwa for Korea which are unique and differ while resembles and sharing some features. Rowley et al.(2004) argue China, Japan and South Korea could postulate cluster of convergence in HRM. Study present distinguishes between levels of occurrence and acceptance and development and practice of HRM in each country. Kim et al.(2007) examine the Chinese, Japanese and Korean about how interpersonal conflict with their supervisors can be resolve and how the differences in conflict management styles can be explain by cultural factors. Results show, Korean were more likely to use compromise style, however Japanese were more likely to oblige their supervisors and less likely to dominate. The country differences in dominating styles and obliging styles were explained partially by self vs collective goal emphasis and concern for the self, respectively. Cooke(2010) compared the patterns of women’s employment in China, India, Japan and South Korea. Kiyota(2016) examined employment by the effects of exports in China, Indonesia, Japan and Korea. Results show that, although more than 80 percent of exports in the four study countries are from manufacturing industries. Through vertical inter-industry linkages, a significant number of workers in non-manufacturing industries depend upon manufacturing exports. Kim(2018) analyzed relationship among psychological empowerment, job satisfaction, three constructs of organizational commitment and turnover intention of China, Japan and Korea. Results show that job satisfaction, affective commitment, normative commitment and turnover intention are increased by psychological empowerment. tojob satisfaction, affective commitment and normative commitment. Also it seems that country doe’s matter therefore country difference need to be considered in managing employees of three countries. Considering the increase in exchange or sharing human resource in the future there are more need in employee management studies. This research adds one.
Following null hypotheses are formulated based on above literature review.
[Hypothesis 4] Three countries’(Korea, China and Japan) results show similar direction of influence.
3. Methodology
3.1. Research Model and Measurement
This research focuses on relationship analysis among transformational leadership, job satisfaction and turnover intention of Korea, China and Japan employees. Research includes two research questions. One, how is the relationship among transformational leadership, job satisfaction and turnover intention. Does job satisfaction mediate between transformational leadership and turnover intention fully or partially? Second, when managing employee of Korea, China and Japan, are they similar or different. Does country matter? Research model is summarized in [Figure 1]. Transformational leadership measurement is from 20 survey items of Bass and Avolio(1994). Transformational leadership comprises with idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. This study consists of 8 items of idealized influence, 4 items of inspirational motivation, 4 items of intellectual stimulation and 4 items of individualized consideration. Job Satisfaction measurement is from 7 survey items of Weiss et al.(1967). And turnover intention is from 8 survey items of Camman et al.(cited in Chen et al., 1998).
[Figure 1] Research Model
3.2. Research Sample
To verify research questions of this study, survey was conducted in Korea, China and Japan. Survey was delivered to employees who were taking MBA course and also survey was forwarded to their coworkers. By nature of MBA program, most companies are sized to include distribution departments. Total 886 surveys were collected, 345 from Korea, 313 from China and 228 from Japan. However useable data of 816 is included in this study and demographic characteristic is summarized in [Table 1]. Among 816, 41.4% are Korea(338), 33.2% China(271) and 25.4% Japan(207).
[Table 1] Demographic Characteristic
4. Analysis Results
4.1. Validity and Reliability
This research conducted factor analysis and reliability test of Cronbach alpha to ascertain construct validity of model and reliability of measurement. Also Harman's single factor analysis is implemented to confirm common method bias. Results of Harman's single factor analysis and reliability test of Cronbach alpha is summarized in [Table 2]. Total 35 items were included yet 5 items were deleted based on factor analysis community result which were lower than score 4. Therefore [Table 2] is Harman's single factor analysis results of remaining 30 items. Result shows, 6 out of 8 items of idealized influence, each of all 4 items of inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. 6 out of 7 items of job satisfaction and 6 out of 8 items of turnover intention are included finally. As result of reliability show all variables is suitable as shown lowest from 0.614 of turnover intention to highest 0.904 of job satisfaction.
[Table 2] Factor Analysis and Reliability Test
Note: R: rotation sums of squared loading, II: idealized influence, IM: inspirational motivation IS: intellectual stimulation, IC: individualized consideration, JS: job satisfaction, TI: turnover intention
4.2. Country Difference
Before analyzing relationship of variables this research analyze country mean difference of idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, job satisfaction, turnover intention among three countries. Results of ANOVA(One-Way Analysis of Variance) are summarized in [Table 3]. Result show that there is cognition difference among Korea, China and Japan employees in idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration and turnover intention. Only in job satisfaction there is no mean difference among three countries employees. Japan shows the lowest transformational leadership in all four; idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration. China show the highest in idealized influence, inspirational motivation and Korea show the highest in intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration. As for turnover intention, China shows the lowest however there was no difference between Korea and Japan.
[Table 3] Mean Comparison Analysis
Note: II: idealized influence, IM: inspirational motivation IS: intellectual stimulation, IC: individualized consideration, JS: job satisfaction, TI: turnover intention
4.3. Correlation
Correlation analysis is conducted before regression and result is summarized in [Table 4]. All four transformational leadership variables have positive correlation among each other. And all four transformational leadership variables have positive correlation with job satisfaction. All four transformational leadership variables and job satisfaction have negative correlation with turnover intention. The highest correlation is 0.826 between idealized influence and inspirational motivation.
[Table 4] Correlation Analysis
Note: **< 0.01, * <0.05, 1 employee age, 2 employee gender, 3 supervisor age, 4 supervisor gender, 5 country, 6 idealized influence, 7 inspirational motivation, 8 intellectual stimulation, 9 individualized consideration, 10 job satisfaction, 11 turnover intention
4.4. Regression
This research suggested two research questions. One, how is the relationship among transformational leadership, job satisfaction and turnover intention. Does job satisfaction mediate between transformational leadership and turnover intention fully or partially? Second, when managing employee of Korea, China and Japan, are they similar or different. Does country matter? To answer the first research question, two regression analyses is conducted. One regression use job satisfaction as dependent variable and the other one use turnover intention as dependent variable. Regression results are summarized in [Table 5]. Both job satisfaction and turnover intension regressions were taken by steps of adding independent variables. First step(M1) include only demographic variables, Second step(M2) include demographic variables and transformational leadership. And for turnover intention, third step(M3) include demographic variables, transformational leadership and job satisfaction.
[Table 5] Regression Analysis
Note: *** < 0.000, **< 0.01, * <0.05, II: idealized influence, IM: inspirational motivation IS: intellectual stimulation, IC: individualized consideration, JS: job satisfaction, TI: turnover intention
First, let’s look into job satisfaction result. As shown in [Table 5], explanation(△R²) increased from 0.5%(M1) to 22%(M2) means transformational leadership is supreme antecedent of job satisfaction. Result show significant demographic variable of job satisfaction are employee’s age(.141) and country(152). Employee’s age have positive influence on job satisfaction which means aged employee feel more job satisfaction. As for country, this study coded Korea as 1, China as 2 and Japan as3, means Japan feel more job satisfied which seem need of more annalistic evidence. For significant transformational leadership variable of job satisfaction are intellectual stimulation(.120) and individualized consideration(.218) supporting H1-3 and H1-4. Which imply employee who their supervisor show more intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration feel more job satisfaction.
Second, as for the turnover intention, explanation increased from 1.1(M1), 5.6(M2) to 10.4(M3) means transformational leadership and job satisfaction are meaningful factor. Results show significant demographic variable is country(-.070) means Japan feel more turnover intention which seem need of more annalistic evidence. For transformational leadership variable, only idealized influence(-.146) is significant supporting H2-1. And job satisfaction(-.247) give significant influence. These mean the more supervisor give idealized influence and the more employee satisfy with their job decrease turnover intention. As for the mediating influence, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration were significant at job satisfaction but not at turnover intention mean job satisfaction fully mediated, supporting H3-3 and H3-4. However idealized influence was not significant at job satisfaction but significant at turnover intention, which means there is only direct influence, rejecting H3-1.
As job satisfaction of M2 and turnover intention of M3 show in [Table 5], intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration was positively significant on job satisfaction and idealize influence and job satisfaction was negatively significant on turnover intention. Which imply job satisfaction mediates between transformational leadership and turnover intention. As for the second part of the first research question ‘does job satisfaction mediate between transformational leadership and turnover intention fully or partially?’ needs more annalistic evidence. To do that this research adds path analysis; results are summarized in [Table 6]. In [Table 5], country is significant in all job satisfaction M1, M2 and turnover intention M1, M2 and M3. Which answers bit of second research question, ‘does country matter?’, yes it matters. However to answer second research question, when managing employee of Korea, China and Japan, are they similar or different, as mentioned above influence of country need more annalistic evidence. To confirm influence of country this research adds two more analysis.
[Table 6] Path Analysis Result of Country as Moderating Variable
Note: *** < 0.000, **< 0.01, * <0.05, II: idealized influence,
IM: inspirational motivation
IS: intellectual stimulation,
IC: individualized consideration, JS: job satisfaction,
TI: turnover intention
First, shown in [Table 5], M3 of turnover intention is analyzed by country separately. For Korea, turnover intention is explained 20.3%, employee age(-.133), intellectual stimulation(-.120) and job satisfaction(-.326) give significant influence. For China, 9.4%, employee’s gender(.146), idealized influence(-.475) and intellectual stimulation(.253) give significant influence. Lastly Japan, turnover intention is explained 11.7% and only job satisfaction(-.310) give significant influence.
Second, to analyze holistic relation among variables, this research analyzes path analysis with country as moderator. Results are summarized in [Table 6]. To identify country’s moderating role and to confirm holistic relation among variables, this study analyzes path analysis and test the structural model invariance across the groups. Model fit of path analysis result of moderating country; CMIN: 11.625, DF: 4, P: .020, CMIN/DF: 2.906, RMR: .013, GFI: .995, NFI: .995, CFI: .997, RMSEA: .048. Validity of cross-group equality constraints result shows p-value of χ² difference as 0.097. Result of model fit and validity of cross-group equality constraints result means full mediating role of job satisfaction is confirming and country difference need to be considered significantly. Results show, job satisfaction is increased by idealized influence in Korea(.233) and China(.270) but not for Japan. Inspirational motivation is not significant in all three countries. Intellectual stimulation increase job satisfaction only in China(.174). Individualized consideration increase job satisfaction in all three countries; Korea(.233), China(.192), Japan(.135). Job satisfaction decrease turnover intention in Korea(-.345) and Japan(-.334) but not significant in China. Results show there were no significant results shown significant in all three countries rather influence of intellectual stimulation on turnover intention shown opposite direction in Korea negative and China positive. Therefore H4 is rejected.
5. Conclusion
5.1. Result Summary
This research focuses on relationship analysis among transformational leadership, job satisfaction and turnover intention of Korea, China and Japan employees. Research includes two research questions. One is causal relationship among variables and mediating role of job satisfaction and another is moderating role of country to confirm similarity or difference among three countries.
Analytical results could be summarized in four aspects. First, relationship between multi-dimension of transformational leadership and job satisfaction, intellectual stimulation increase job satisfaction. Which is consistent with literature (Hanaysha et al., 2012; Puni et al., 2016). Also in this research individualized consideration increase job satisfaction. Which is consistent with literature(Puni et al., 2016). An effective leadership style is capable of providing motivational stimulus and direction to followers to achieve the organizational mission and goals(Nasreen & Mehmood, 2018). Second, relationship between multidimension of transformational leadership and turnover intention, idealized influence decreased turnover intention. Which is similar result as literature that overall transformational leadership decreased turnover intention(Ariyabuddhiphongs & Kahn, 2017; Lim et al., 2017; Sun & Wang, 2017; Pravichai & Ariyabuddhiphongs, 2018). Third, job satisfaction as mediator between transformational leadership and turnover intention, job satisfaction do mediate at intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration but not for idealized influence which give only direct influence to turnover intention. Lastly fourth, role of country, country give significant influence on both job satisfaction and turnover intention. Also there was significant statistical difference among three countries to considering country as moderator.
5.2. Contribution and Implication
This research has a few academic contributions and managerial implications. As for academic contribution, even though there is profound interaction and interdependency among Korea, China and Japan and increase in exchange or sharing human resource in the future, need more research in comparison study of employee management (Alston, 1989; Rowley et al., 2004; Kim et al., 2007; Cooke, 2010; Kiyota, 2016; Kim, 2018) research. Also there was need for statistical comparison research(Kim et al., 2007; Kim, 2018). This research contributes to that. There were some studies analyzing multi-dimensional transformational leadership on job satisfaction(Hanaysha et al., 2012; Bayram & Dinc, 2015; Puni et al., 2016; Lim et al., 2017) however there was limited on turnover intention. This research contributes to that.
As for managerial implication to Korea, China and Japan in general, to increase job satisfaction supervisor should stimulation employee intellectually and consider individually. To decrease turnover intention, employee job satisfaction should be increased and supervisor should influence idealization of employee. However in detail managerial implication to three countries, there were no antecedent shared in all three countries which means there are no shared common feature in managing transformational leadership, job satisfaction and turnover intention. In managing Korean and Japan’s employee turnover intention, job satisfaction need to increased. Therefore supervisor should pay attention to what influence employee job satisfaction. In managing Korean intellectual stimulation need to be consider. Supervisor should stimulate employee intellectually and supervisor should re-examine critical assumptions to question. Like, whether they are appropriate, seek differing perspectives when solving problems, let employee to look at problems from many different angles and suggests new ways of looking at how to complete assignments. But to Chines employee, intellectual stimulation increase turnover intention therefore needs cautious approach. Chines employee’s turnover intention is decreased by idealized influence. Therefore supervisor should talks about their most important values and beliefs, specifies the importance of having a strong sense of purpose, considers the moral and ethical consequences of decisions, emphasizes the importance of having a collective sense of mission, acts in ways that builds employee respect and displays a sense of power and confidence.
5.3. Limitation
There are a few limitations. First is about representative of sample used in this research. This research consists of total 816 of 338 Korean, 271 Chinese and 207 of Japanese of indefinite industry. This involves whether number is enough to represent three countries and whether industry attribute can be ignore. In the future research, matching sample based analysis is in need to give concrete implication. Second is about leadership. This research only concerned transformational leadership therefore in future research could include transaction or other to suggest optional leadership to HR management. Third is about other antecedent of turnover intention. This research only includes transformational leadership and job satisfaction as antecedent of turnover intention. However turnover intention is influenced by much complex and diverse elements like trust(Ariyabuddhiphongs & Kahn, 2017; Pravichai & Ariyabuddhiphongs, 2018), organizational commitment(Lim et al., 2017) or culture(Pravichai & Ariyabuddhiphongs, 2018) and so on. Therefore in future research other antecedent need to be analyzed. Even though there are limitations, this research contributes to academic field by providing newly analyzed comparison research of Korea, China and Japan with statistical analysis and suggests managerial implication to employee manager.