1. Introduction
These days, Korean society made change to be multi-racial and multi-cultural society with variety at rapid increase of married immigrants, foreign labor and foreign students studying in Korea. Internationalization in Korean society was opened to expand and to move population in the world and to make change of the society and to establish multi-cultural society during short time. Number of foreigners increased from 1,856,656 persons at the end of February, 2016 to 1.943,576 persons at the end of March, 2016 4.7% (86,920 persons) up and 7.2% (130,539 persons) up than same time one year before.
In 2002, population of multi-cultural persons in Korea accounted for 629,006 persons to keep annual growth rate of more than 10% and to exceed 4% of total population. (Immigration Department and Foreigners Policy Headquarters, October, 2014). Such a statistical trend indicated rapid transition of Korea to be global multi-cultural country to solve problems of low birth and aging society by acceptance of immigration. Immigrants in their 20s to 40s occupied 76% of foreign immigrants to be likely to contribute to the nation and the society (Lee, Choi, & Chol, 2010).
In South Korea, multi-cultural society was made for a short time to produce xenophobia at conflict between Korean citizens and staying foreigners, for instance, abasement of ones of mixed blood in village around US military base, fear against foreigners, neglect against other races than Caucasian, and discrimination against immigration labor workers from South East Asia under influence upon mass media communication. Citizens' negative prejudice against foreigners at consecutive crimes produced xenophobia to prevent development of multi-cultural society(Huh, 2014).
In Korea, racial minority was often discriminated and neglected to threaten the society same as in foreign countries, so that the government needed to remove Xenophobia(Chang, 2006).
Married migrant women had been members in the Korean society to have poor relation with native residents and to be social minority and to be discriminated. The discrimination made the women be isolated to have difficulty at social activity(Lee, Choi, & Chol, 2010). Multi-cultural group had a different look, words and inherent culture to let the women be discriminated. The perceived discrimination made the women be discriminated despite no discrimination(Lee & Kim, 2012). Most of persons of minority group perceived discrimination to make effort to be member of majority group. The minority attempted to fight against majority group at difficulty and to create social conflict and uneasiness(Lee, Park, & Kim, 2014). In Korea, the government had no control tower to prevent xenophobia and to put emphasis upon social integration by plans and to be short of systems. Cultural capacity was needed to react in the foreign groups(Huh, 2014).
This study investigated xenophobia that was serious social problem, and classified multi-cultural groups in Korea into married immigrant, foreign labor workers and foreign students studying in Korea to examine effects of fixed idea on multi-cultural persons, multi-cultural education experience, multi-cultural sensitivity, good feeling on multi-cultural persons upon social distance with multi-cultural persons, and to find out counteractions and cultural capacity on the xenophobia(Hjerm, 2001).
2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Relationship between Cultural Sensitivity and Social Distance
The society with high multi-cultural cognition was said to be a group that cultural majority group had same value of minority group, and to have multi-cultural identity based on mutual understanding, respect, communication and reliability (Lee, Choi, & Chol, 2010).
Social distance was prejudice and subjective feeling on various kinds of social groups to apply to empirical study. Social distance was applied to racial problem to be understanding and difference between persons(Bavin, 2007). Social distance was friendliness (subjective distance) that group member thought of another group and to be scope of social contact acceptable(Ahn, 2011).
The society with high perception of multi-culture shall multiple phase of races, tribes and cultures to perceive social and cultural variety in affirmative way and to think much of them and to have social ideology and to protect social and cultural variety and to give all of citizens equal opportunity without discrimination of races and nationality by the government's policy and programs(Chung & Lee, 2011).
A terminology of social distance being different from existing concept was used to avoid disturbance between subjective judge and objective index on social definition and measuring on foreigners(Bavin, 2007). The social distance that described an individual's attitude toward person having a position to be subjective distance. The concept emphasized subjectiveness of an individual rather than objective and structural aspect to describe subjective feeling toward special group and/or member(Alexander, 2009).
The cultural sensitivity admits of difference between cultures regardless of prejudice on another culture to be based on emotional thing, and cultural background had influence each other to make effort to cognize potential, cultural and activity factors(Chug & Lee, 2011).
Fixed idea on other culture can be based on discriminating attitude on foreigners. Individuals can process information on men and culture unconsciously to decide upon behavior(Chang, 2006). Not only cultural sensitivity but also fixed idea is needed to cognize and accept various kinds of culture.
Cultural variety differed from religious, racial, national value in the society to accept existence and life styles of social groups. Cultural variety was said to cognize similarity and variety without preference and truth. Communication between cultures admitted of difference of cultural sensitivity to accept actively and to be emotional desire. The desire differed from fixed idea to have relations with cultural sensitivity and fixed idea. Lack of knowledge on another culture had problem and education on cultural sensitivity was needed(Hjerm, 2001).
2.2. Relation between Fixed Idea, Preference, and Social Distance
Fixed idea was said to be a collection of beliefs that all of the members exaggerated with same attribute. Fixed idea was said to be picture of simple picture of outside world from men's desire to understand and take action easily (Jones, 2011). Fixed idea was a series of believes toward another group to evaluate another group negatively according to groups’ name(Hwang, 2010),
Fixed idea that was excessively generalized cognized unequal position and roles naturally based on races and gender to rely upon personal characteristics of unemployment and poverty of minority groups and to be free from moral difficulty of majority groups and to neglect various kinds of individualities and to decline and control unlimited potential of individuals(Jones, 2011).
The contact theory was good to understand effects of cultural contact upon cultural preference and/or continuity to decrease prejudice and fixed idea on out-group to learn out-group subjective culture and to have affirmative attitude toward out-group(Menon & Kahn, 2003).
Making foreigner friend and/or fellow can weaken 2011). The contact theory can help understand effect of cultural contact upon cultural preference and continuity. Personal contact between groups can lessen prejudice and/or fixed idea on out- group to learn out-group subjective culture and to have affirmative attitude toward out-group(Lee, Park, & Kim, 2014). The salient belief that is a part of the beliefs of a lot of objects can make attitude(Lee, Park, & Kim, 2014). Remarkable attribute belief says beliefs at formation and/or evaluation of attitude toward object(Lee & Kim, 2012). Consumers think much of attribute beliefs, and attributes that the consumers think much of the most are not always remarkable(Lee & Kim, 2013). Emotional factor indicated affirmative and/or negative evaluation(Lee & Kim, 2012).
The emotion that men feel at daily lives is thought to be personal and psychological: In fact, emotion that men feel can be made at relation with others to have great influence upon human behavior(Lee & Kim, 2013). Prejudicial and negative idea on the subject came from unfavorable emotion on the group. A comparative study on emotion and attitude toward North Koreans of not only college students but also citizens said that North Koreans were influenced not by cognition but by emotion(Lee, 2012; Lee, 2016). Emotional factors that were not been given attention in the study on attitude and/or prejudice on special group could describe cognitive factors. This study investigated effects of social distance along with fixed idea
2.3. Relation between Social Distance and Xenophobia
Xenophobia means fear against foreigners to hate them. Xenophobia means unreasonable hate against foreigners (Kim, 2012).
Xenophobia was used to be similar to racial discrimination to take negative actions against foreigners in their region. Xenophobia means attitude and/or behavior to hate foreigners having no homogeneity to be likely to conflict in serious way and to give damage to not only foreigners but also native residents(Sinwell, 2011).
A study on the cause of xenophobia in Germany said that previous East German had more hospitality against Islam than previous West German had because of less opportunity to contact Islamic people. Previous East German could not contact Islam in the community to be exposed to bad men of negative news, description, soap opera and movies to cognize threat of the Christian society(Chang, 2006).
Norway students had xenophobia against immigrants. Community spirit with foreigners had relation with xenophobia. Good meeting with foreigners was found to strengthen community consciousness(Lee, 2016). Xenophobia might occur at the place where foreign labor workers entered in advanced countries, in other words, countries with minority of Caucasian, to be likely to expand in the world (Lee, 2016; Taras, 2009).
Therefore, xenophobia came from negative prejudice at lack of contact with foreigners rather than fear against foreigner. Negative description by mass media strengthened hostile feeling against foreigners to discriminate naturalized citizens and to follow anti-immigration policy. Negative cognition at contact with foreigners and/or immigrants might produce xenophobia.
2.4. Xenophobia in Korea
Foreigner crimes have recently increased in the society:24,379 cases in 2012, 26,663 cases in 2013, and 30,684 cases in 2014, and the Chinese committed crimes: 13,646 cases in 2012, 15,121 cases in 2013, and 17,870 cases in 2014. Vietnamese crimes followed Chinese crimes. News media have reported increase of foreigner crimes continuously to be likely to create xenophobia of the Korean people(Shim, 2016). Mass communication media reported murder cases of Uwianchun from Inner Mongolia, China as well as Chun-Bong Park, a Chinese Korean to let the Koreans have fear against foreigners and hate foreigners. The Koreans think that the society is not safe because of foreigners' crimes(CBC Media, June 15, 2012). illegal brokers of international marriage made unmarried men in rural areas get married to women in South East Asia in illegal way to produce problems that married migrant women could not adapt to the Korean society(Sinwell, 2011; Shim, 2016).
In fact, a lot of Korean people worried about potential hatred against foreigners to produce xenophobia. Some of the Koreans opposed to be a member of lawmaker of Lee Jasmine and to organize opposition meeting against multi-cultural by Internet cafe activity. This society might have such a problem at long time stagnation
3. Methodologies
The study classified multi-cultural persons into married women immigrant, foreign lab or worker, and foreign students studying in Korea to examine effects of their thought on cultural cognition. Self-administered questionnaire was used. The subject was college students in Gyeonggi, Gyeongnam and Chungcheong with industrial complexes, more married women immigrants and more foreign students studying in Korea. The author distributed and collected questionnaire and sample 30 days from April 1, 2016 to April 30, 2016. The author collected 213 copies at 84.52%. The author made use of 192 copies excluding questionnaire with poor answer.
3.1. Methodologies
SPSS 19.0 was used. Quantitative analysis was done.
First, reliability analysis was to find out Cronbach’ α coefficient. Second, exploratory factor analysis and frequency analysis were done. Third, descriptive statistical analysis was done to estimate mean and standard deviation. Fourth, t-test and one way ANOVA were done. Fifth, multi-regression was done to test relation between variables.
3.2. Research Model
The research hypothesis of the research problem is shown in the following [Table 1].
[Table 1] Hypothesis
3.3. Test Tools
3.3.1. Social distance
Social distance on multi-cultural person was thought be 'understanding and emotion and sympathetic understanding on each other and an individual's subjective thinking on specific group and member' (Kim & Lee, 2014). In this study, Bogarbus that had close relation with the Koreans' cognition was used, and some of questions of precedent studies were made correction in accordance with the study's intention and situation. 5-scales were used to investigate familiarity and rejection on the foreigners.
3.3.2. Reliability of social distance
Social distance on married migrant, foreign laborers and foreign students studying in Korea were sub variables (Kim, 2012). Social distance on married migrants (8 questions), foreign laborers (8 questions) and foreign students studying in Korea (8 questions) were used to investigate social distance (Kim, 2012). Factor analysis was done by using oblique to have 5 questions of social distance on married migrant, and 5 questions on married foreign laborers and 6 questions on foreign students studying in Korea (Kim, 2014). Each question was added to aggregate. Likert 5-point scale was used. High point indicated satisfaction. Cronbach'a of social distance accounted for 0.845. [Table 2].
[Table 2] Social distance sub-factors and reliability
3.3.3. Cultural sensitivity
Cultural sensitivity scale with 21 questions were based on precedent studies on supply of services and/or volunteer services for married migrant women, foreign laborers, and foreign students studying in Korea. In this study, cultural integration (4 questions), cultural knowledge (3 questions), cultural opportunity (7 questions), cultural uniqueness (4 questions) and use of language (3 questions) were used (Kim, 2009).
3.3.4. Fixed ideas
CRF(Counselor Rating Form) that supplemented pair of the adverb was used to investigate fixed idea. 5 point Likert was used(Mcwilliams & Siegel, 2001).
3.3.5. Favorability
Likert 5-point scale was used to investigate favorability on married migrant, foreign laborers and foreign student studying in Korea(Steenkamp, 2009).
3.3.6. Reliability of independent variables
Sub variables of independent variables include cultural sensitivity of married migrants, fixed ideas and favorability. 8 questions of cultural sensitivity, 8 questions of fixed idea and 8 questions of favorability were used. Each 6 questions of cultural sensitivity, fixed idea and favorability were used. (Yoon, 2008). Each question was added up to make aggregation: Likert 5-point scale was used, for instance, 5 point of very much true, and 0 of not true at all. High score indicated user's high satisfaction. Cronbach'a of independent variable was 0.886 [Table 3].
[Table 3] Independent variable sub-factors and reliability
3.4. Factor Analysis
3.4.1. Social distance
Factors of social distance were [table 4]. Factors were evenly classified to include married migrant, foreign laborers and foreign students studying in Korea.
[Table 4] Analysis of social distance factor
3.4.2. Social distance
Factors of cultural sensitivity, fixed idea and favorability were [Table 5]. Factors were evenly classified to have cultural sensitivity, fixed idea and favorability.
[Table 5] Independent variable factor analysis
4. The Findings
4.1. Descriptive Statistical Analysis
Not only dependent variable but also independent variable had mean and standard deviation ([Table 6]).
[Table 6] Technical analysis of key variables
Married migrant women were given social distance the least, while not only foreign students studying in Korea but also foreign laborers were done much.
The interviewees thought that they knew foreign students studying in Korea the most (2.62(SD= .94), followed by foreign laborers (SD= .93) and married migrant (SD= .81).
The interviewees had a fixed idea on foreign students the most (3.56, SD= 0.79), followed by married migrant (3.23(SD= .88)) and foreign laborers (3.12(SD= .85)). Foreign students studying in Korea were given favorability the most (3.37(SD= .79)), followed by married migrant (3.01(SD= .61)) and foreign laborers (2.57(SD= .60)). 4.2. One-way ANOVA
The interviewees perceived social distance on married migrants, foreign laborers and foreign students studying in Korea in significantly different way depending upon cultural sensitivity, fixed idea and favorability. Social distance on married migrant and foreign laborers had p-value of .000: So, hypothesis 1, 2 and 3 were adopted. Social distance on married migrant and foreign laborer was given the highest mean, and cultural sensitivity was given low mean. Refer to [Table 7] for the above contents.
[Table 7] One-way ANOVA for key variables
4.3. Multiple Regression Analysis
The interviewee's relationship such as cultural sensitivity, fixed idea and favorability may have influence upon married migrant's social distance: The cultural sensitivity had influence upon married migrant's social distance with t of –1.117: [Hypothesis 1] was adopted. Fixed idea had influence upon married migrant's social distance with t of –5.437: [Hypothesis 2] was adopted. Favorability had influence upon married migrant's social distance with t of -5.563: [Hypothesis 3] was adopted. So, cultural sensitivity, fixed idea and favorability had significant influence upon married migrant's social distance. F of regression model was 60.3330 (p=.000), and R² = .315 of the regression was 31.5% of explanatory power. Durbin-Watson was 1.954 to have no relation with residual to be appropriate for regression model. The interviewee's relation such as cultural sensitivity, fixed idea and favorability had influence upon foreign laborer's social distance: The cultural sensitivity had social influence upon foreign laborers with t of -1.247:[Hypothesis 1] was adopted. Fixed idea had influence upon foreign laborer's social distance with t of -4.959: [Hypothesis 2] was adopted. Favorability had influence upon foreign laborer's social distance with t of -7.197: [Hypothesis 3] was adopted.
Therefore, cultural sensitivity, fixed idea and favorability had significant influence upon foreign laborer's social distance. F of regression model was 75.534 (p=.000), and R² was 36.7%. Durbin-Watson of 1.759 was appropriate for regression model regardless of residual. The interviewee's relationship such as cultural sensitivity, fixed idea and favorability had influence upon foreign students' social distance with t of –2.181: [Hypothesis 1] was adopted. Fixed idea had influence upon foreign students studying in Korea with t of –5.534: [Hypothesis 2] was adopted. Favorability had influence upon social distance of foreign student studying in Korea with t of -7.033: [Hypothesis 3] was adopted. In other words, cultural sensitivity, fixed idea and favorability had influence upon social distance of foreign student studying in Korea. F of regression model was 84.356 (p=.000), and R² was 0.393. Durbin-Watson of 1.769 was appropriate for regression model to have no relation with residuals. Refer to [Table 8] for the above contents.
[Table 8] Social distance regression for major variables
5. Conclusion and Discussion
5.1. Summary
This study investigated effect of multi-cultural person's cultural distance upon xenophobia. The study examined effects of thinking upon cultural cognition: The subject was college students at industrial complex with foreign laborers, and rural areas, and in the areas with many of married migrant women, and the areas with many married migrant women.
The interviewees had the least social distance with married migrants, and the most social distance with not only foreign students studying in Korea but also foreign laborers. The interviewees thought that they knew foreign student studying in Korea the most (2.62, SD=0.94), followed by foreign laborers (2.41, SD=0.93) and married migrants (2.14, SD=0.81). The interviewees had a fixed idea on foreign student studying in Korea (3.56, SD=0.924), followed by married migrant (3.23, SD=0.88) and foreign laborers (3.12, SD=0.85). The interviewees had favorability on foreign students studying in Korea (3.37, SD=0.79) the most, followed by married migrant (3.01, SD=0.61) and foreign laborers (2.57, SD=0.60).
Immigrants move their shelters in the world considering various kinds of reasons, for instance, seeking for better life, political environment and demographic pressure, looking for shelters at racial conflict, and movement of the capital to move labor. Immigrants face poverty and uneasiness in mother country to look for new opportunity and lives to overcome insufficient opportunity, so that about 3 percent of population in the world move their shelters. Immigrants move in the world to look for new lives and happiness to open multi-cultural society. Korean people that have opened multi-cultural society are demanded to understand cultural variety of immigrants and to be free from Confucianism culture and to accommodate immigrants actively. Korea did not prepare for immigrants not to agree among people, so that the government was demanded to produce agreed emotion of immigrants. As shown in the findings, Korean people had different emotion and preference on married immigrant, foreign students studying in Korea and foreign labor workers. Different preference to multi-cultural persons depending upon fixed idea might produce xenophobia, so that the government was demanded to establish various kinds of policies of lives to live life together with immigrant at government level.
5.2. Suggestions
5.2.1. Migrant's more opportunity at decision making
The interviewees often said support in favor of migrants without preliminary survey. Not only preliminary investigation into political demand but also feedback by post rating shall make basic manual(Uusitalo & Oksanen, 2004). Some of local governments allowed small number of migrant women join political discussion in the type of honorary public relation ambassador and/or political monitoring team: In this study, married migrant women, foreign laborers and foreign students studying in Korea were given less opportunity to express their ideas at adaptation to the Korean society. Service agencies in Korea shall be not nominal agency but actual window of migrant's ideas .
5.2.2. Bridge program and support between migrants and community
Voluntary meeting and activities based on migrant's identity are likely to increase at long history of migration, and some of self-support meetings provide migrants with supports by themselves to be new types of NGO activity. Migrants could have pride and identity by making migrant community to communicate with Korean neighbors and other entities in the community. Bridge program shall be supported to help migrants' voluntary activities and to connect Korean people in the community. For instance, not only Korea people but also migrants shall join to support community activities. Community residents shall increase sensitivity to retrospect prejudice on migrants and to be given education. In Australia, citizens join project of 'living in harmony' according to federal government's policy to join and integrate and to support community project and partnership program.
5.2.3. Migrant Integration Model
Married migrants are said to integrate in the society. Women migrated from the place having different politics, economy and society were forced to follow patriarch value in the society to adapt them to the Korean society and to produce adverse effect(Yoon, 2009). Migrant women were asked to acknowledge Korean value and culture being different from their own home country's value that could produce identity problem. With goal of adaptation, a country without cultural difference and variety could not survive. Harmonious integration with acceptance of migrants shall admit of difference of variety finally .
5.3. Improvement
The study suggested as follow:
First, sampling and limitation on survey areas shall be supplemented. The interviewees were college student only, so that they should include others. Second, test tool shall be developed to investigate fixed idea, social distance and cultural sensitivity of multi-cultural groups. Third, exploratory study is needed to investigate effect upon social distance. Fourth, contents of the questionnaire could not express adverb phrase with subjective emotion.