• Economic and Environmental Geology
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• v.52 no.1
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• pp.91-106
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• 2019

The Donghachong tomb from Royal Tombs at Neungsanri is composed of 15 sides including the floor, and the most highly proportion of rock, two-mica granite, are used on the 7 sides (46.6%). Also, augen gneiss consist with another 3 sides (20.0%), and each of the remaining 3 sides (6.7%) are made up of granodiorite, gneissous granite and leucocratic granite, all of which were used to comprise the tabural stone. Meanwhile, the two floors of the burial chamber and the front chamber, are made up of brick-shaped amphibole schist (13.3%). These rocks are occurred in the Buyeo area and their provenance sites are located at the side of Guemgang river. The Memorial Stone for Liu Renyuen in Tang China is a typical augen gneiss showing distinct schistosity and augen texture. This rock has the same petrographic characteristics with the rocks used to build the Donghachong tomb, Sanjikri dolmens and Setapri pagoda in Buyeo. This augen gneiss is distributed from the Jeungsanri in Buyeo to Dukjiri in Gongju as a large scaled rock body, and where currently are the quarries to produce stone aggregates, garden and landscape rocks. Thus, it is highly probable that the site around Buyeo was the source area of augen gneisses since the Bronze Age. However, while augen gneiss is easier to form into shapes it should have disadvantages when it comes to painting on the tomb wall because of their petrographic characteristics of low strength and dark color. Therefore, it is very intriguing to investigate which transportation method the people of Baekje chose with consideration of the distance and terrain, efficiency and convenience.

• Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage
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• v.1 no.1
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• pp.39-48
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• 2012

The first twenty-five years of scientific study within Korea on Korean traditional ceramics has been characterized as a bridging effort to understand the rich field of artistic ceramic masterpieces on one hand with analytic results gained from mounds of broken shards and kiln wastes on the other. First shard pieces were collected directly from the waste mounds, but most of the analyzed shards were provided by art historians and museum staffs directly involved in systematic excavations. The scientific study is viewed as one of many complimentary ways in learning about the multi-faceted ceramics culture, ultimately connecting human spirits and endeavors from the past to the present to the future. About 1350 pieces of analyzed shards have been so far collected and organized according to the production location and time period. From the experimental results of the analysis, the compositional and microstructural characteristics of bodies and glazes have been deduced for many kiln sites of Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. Except for a few local kilns, porcelain stone was used as body material in both dynasties. The principle of mixing a clay component with a flux material was used in Korean glazes as was in China. The clay component different from body clay was often used early on. In Gangjin a porcelain material appropriate for whiteware body was mixed for celadon glaze, and in Joseon Gwangju kilns glaze stone was chief clay material. The use of wood ash persisted in Korea even in making buncheong glazes, but in Joseon whitewares burnt lime and eventually crushed lime were used as flux material.

• The Journal of the Petrological Society of Korea
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• v.24 no.3
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• pp.181-191
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• 2015

The Bakseok of Geunjeongjeon Hall in Gyeongbokgung Palace is platy floor stone acting as drainage, protected glaring and sliding. The Bakseoks were composed of anisotropic medium-grained biotite granite with a weak myrmekitic texture. Interpretation of transportation process for the Bakseok and original granite provenance trace of and analyze of identity based on ancient writings and detail field survey. As a result, the very similar granite with the Bakseok in lithology, composition mineral, texture and geochemical characteristics was found around Mt. Nakgasan in the Seokmodo Island. There were interpreted stonework process of the Bakseok used exfoliation granite dome with physical weathering properties in Seokmodo Island, to get platy stone economically stonework at the state level as a minimized on burden of supply and men power.

• 보존과학연구
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• s.24
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• pp.169-184
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• 2003

Yearly mean temperature and relative-humidity of the Seokguram Grotto was measured $19~23^{\circ}C$, 40~44% from May, 1998 to December,2002. The measurement has little differences comparing to the optimum guideline (temperature : $20^{\circ}\pm2^{\circ}C$, relative-humidity : $50^{\circ}\pm5%$). It is necessary to increase humidity in the Seokguram Grotto during winter because of heating and decrease the temperature during summer because of a higher temperature of outside. In addition, the diurnal range keep in $4^{\circ}C$ of temperature and in 10% of relative-humidity. Yearly mean concentration of $CO_2$(carbon dioxide) was measured538~658ppm that is higher than concentration of normal atmosphere(360 ppm). The $CO_2$ has an cumulative effect on the surface of stone cultural properties as a form of carbonic acid($H_2CO_3$) after reaction with water. HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) system should be operated to maintain ideal state for the preservation according to the optimum guideline. Also, the entrance into the Seokguram Grotto should be controlled to prevent a sudden fluctuation of humidity and temperature. Human could carry small particles like a microdust, microbe, etc., into the Seokguram Grotto and also could damage the surface by a direct touch.

• 보존과학연구
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• s.25
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• pp.171-195
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• 2004

This research presents an evaluation of the weathering and deterioration state of the Wanggung-ri five-storied stone pagoda in the Iksan (National Treasure No. 289) and suggests conservational schemes. A deterioration map of the pagoda was drawn from the aspects of petrological, physical, chemical, biological, structural and artificial weathering.The rock properties consisting of the pagoda were medium-grained biotite granite that had leucocratic phenocryst developed in parts. The body of each story suffered severely from the secondary contamination that turned the colors into light grey, pitch dark, yellowish brown, and reddish brown as well as granular decomposition, exfoliation and peel-off. The roof stones were heavy exfoliated or peeled off in most of the cases. In addition to the fine cracks, there were layered cracks on the corners. The roof stones of the3rd and 4th story in the north and west side had some stones fall-off, while those of the 2ndstory in the north side had steel reinforcement filled for a fixing purpose. Those of the 5th story showed big gaps that must have originated from cracks and were easily subject to granular decomposition and rainfall. The inside clay filler was missing in the lower part of the roof stones of the 4th and 5th story and the supporting stones, which were thus covered by light grey or pitch dark sediments. The contact area of the materials was about 70 % in the parts where there was a space due to the filler missing and washigher than 90 % in the lower parts of the pagoda. About 90 % or more of the roof stones surface of each story were covered by aerial plants that formed a thick biological mat. Thus it seemed necessary to come up with the conservational measures to remove the plans living on the surface of the stone materials, with the plans to prevent rain from falling inside, and with the water repellent and hardening treatments to postpone the surface weathering of the rock properties. All those measures and plans must be based on the results of long-term monitoring and thorough detail investigations.

• Conservation Science in Museum
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• v.17
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• pp.101-116
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• 2016

Ceramic cultural artifacts restored with gypsum-based materials are prone to decay over time due to gypsum's natural absorption and release of atmospheric moisture, often leading to distortion and peeling of painted layers. This study proposes a new restoration material which utilizes extra hard stone, significantly superior in strength to regular gypsum. In order to enhance its physical properties and make it suitable for restoration of ceramics, extra hard stone is mixed with metakaolin. This mixture far surpasses regular gypsum in compressive strength(119MPa vs. 26MPa) while also maintaining a much lower wear rate(0.88% vs. 2.53%). Furthermore, the water absorption rate(2.9%) of the mixed material is over five times lower than that of regular gypsum(17.2%). When examined using a SEM(Scanning Electron Microscope), this mixture also proved superior to extra hard stone in terms of hardened density. The addition of metakaolin increases the mixture's strength and water resistance over that of extra hard stone and also improves its surface density, making it ideal for the restoration of ceramics. It has already been used to repair ceramic objects in the Museum's collection: Clay basin(sinan 18892), Buncheong ware bottle with incised peony design(jubsu 2034), Buncheong ware bowl with chrysanthemum(jubsu 1730). Results thus far have shown the mixture to be easy to inject and layer as well as harden into an even surface, which allows for smooth application of paint for color matching.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.25 no.4
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• pp.439-450
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• 2009

The purpose of this study is to find out characteristics of the fillers made by epoxy resin (L-30) and filling epoxy resin (L-50) with talc, quartz sand and wollastonite with different mixture ratio of 5%, 50%, 80%, 120%, and 150%. The viscometer and colorimeter were used to measure the viscosity and chromaticity of the fillers. Additionally, IC and SEM were used to reveal characteristics of the filler, and checked ultrasonic wave velocity, compressive strength and contact angle to estimate the stability between the filler and stones which are essential for conservation treatments. The filler mixed with the talc had the lowest value in the ultrasonic wave velocity analysis, and its compressive strength decreased as the mixing rate of talc increased. On the other hand, wollastonite had higher values than others in the ultrasonic wave velocity and the compressive strength regardless of epoxy resin type, also, these values increased as mixing rate increased. The properties of the filler, which include the granularity and shape, have influence on characteristics of the stone conservation adhesives. Thus, the filler type, characteristic, and mixture ratio must be considered for effective conservation treatment.

• Journal of Environmental Science International
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• v.7 no.3
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• pp.361-368
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• 1998

The structure such as building and cultural properties was composed of various materials like wood, metal and stone that have been utilized and exposed to air, wind and rain far a long time. However, because of their special characteristics as structure, collecting of samples that may involve their destruction cannot be permitted, ever for material analysis. Therefore, h order to study the Influence of atmospheric pollution on structure, atmospheric corrosion tests were achieved by making use of materials(bronze. ancient copper, copper, steel and marble) in field exposure tests. Atmospheric exposure sites are selected from places which are characterized by urban, rural, Industrial and marine enoronments In Northeast Asia. According to the results of atmospheric corrosion tests: The corrosion rates of Industrial states In china were more serious than other sampling sites. In the correlation of meteorological factors. wet hours was defiled as Intogeacted hours under that atmospheric temperature is above $0^{\circ}C$ and relative humidity in above 80% that has a great influence on corrosion tests of materials in case of a short time. The relative humidity was above about 75% that resulted in great increase of corrosion rates. In the esimation of corrosion rates between materials, corrosion rates of steel was about thirty times and decuple larger than that of other materials excluding marble in unshelterd exposure and In sheltered exposure.

• Journal of Environmental Health Sciences
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• v.31 no.5 s.86
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• pp.349-359
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• 2005

In this study, we focused on the geographical and the meterological conditions, the atmospheric examination, the soil contents and compositions in order to establish cultural properties conservation plan in Gyeongju and its surroundings. Also, the transport route with environmental contaminants in Ulsan and Pohang was examined. The results could be summarized as follows ; Air pollutant and environmental contaminant was transported by two types of winds. One is induced by local winds, the other is induced by synoptic winds. Air contaminant transported from coastal regions to inland regions were associated with wind velocity. Gyeongju had good atmospheric conditions, i.e. $SO_2\;0.009{\sim}0.011ppm,\;CO\;0.6{\sim}0.8ppm,\;NO_2\;0.015{\sim}0.020ppm,\;O_3\;0.017{\sim}0.032ppm,\;PM_{10}\;46{\sim}62{\mu}g/m^3\;and\;Pb\;0.034{\sim}0.060{\mu}g/m^3$, which was below environmental air qualify standards and was little lower than those of Pohang and Ulsan. However, Ulsan and Pohang city are located on south-east coast and have many industrial facilities. Hence, air pollution problems become serious issues in Ulsan, Pohang, Busan, Daegu and other cities due to the emission of air pollutants from the various industrial facilities, incinerator and power plants, etc. The soil of Gyeongju had heavy metals conditions, i.e. $Cd\;0.01{\sim}0.08mg/kg,\;Cu\;N.D{\sim}2.39mg/kg,\;As\;N.D{\sim}0.07mg/kg,\;Hg\;N.D{\sim}0.15mg/kg,\;Pb\;0.49{\sim}1.39mg/kg,\;Cr^{+6}\;0.02{\sim}0.42mg/kg,\;Fe\;0.74{\sim}1.55mg/kg,\;Mn\;0.11{\sim}0.49mg/kg\;and\;Zn\;1.11{\sim}3.56mg/kg$. However, pH value of soil had range of $4.12{\sim}7.45$. The results showed that high pH concentration of soil could occur due to air pollution diffusion and environmental contaminant transport at Ulsan and Pohang city.

• The Journal of the Convergence on Culture Technology
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• v.9 no.1
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• pp.539-544
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• 2023

The subject of this study is the Maae Buddha statue in granodiorite of the Mesozoic Cretaceous period, which is concerned about stability as a standing stone cultural property located in ◯◯-dong, Gyeongsangbuk-do. For stability analysis, three-dimensional face mapping, geological properties of joints, three-dimensional scanning, ultrasonic velocity, polarization microscopy, electron microscopy analysis and XRD analysis were performed. In addition, the safety factor of the Maaebul was calculated by analyzing the damage status investigation, stereographic projection analysis, rock classification, and limit equilibrium analysis. The types and scales of damage and possible collapse by section depend on the degree of weathering of the rock and the orientation and characteristics of the joints, but wedge-failure and toppling-failure are expected to be small-scale. The safety factor of Maaebul in dry and wet conditions is less than 1.2, so stability is concerned. The types of damage were mainly observed, such as exfoliation, cracking, granular decomposition, and vegetation growth. The Maaebul rock is granodiorite, and the surface discoloration materials are K, Fe, and Mg. The 4 sets of joints are developed, J1 is tensile joint and the others are shear joint. The uniaxial compressive strength estimated by ultrasonic exploration is 514kgf/cm2, which corresponds to most soft rocks and some weathered rocks. Rock classification(RMR) is estimated to be grade 5, very poor rock mass. These technique along with the existing methods of safety diagnosis of cultural properties are expected to be a reasonable tool for objective interpretation and stability review of stone cultural properties.