• Parasites, Hosts and Diseases
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• v.53 no.2
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• pp.189-196
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• 2015

The sequestration of infected erythrocytes in the placenta can activate the syncytiotrophoblast to release cytokines that affect the micro-environment and influence the delivery of nutrients and oxygen to fetus. The high level of IL-10 has been reported in the intervillous space and could prevent the pathological effects. There is still no data of Th17 involvement in the pathogenesis of placental malaria. This study was conducted to reveal the influence of placental IL-17 and IL-10 levels on fetal weights in malaria placenta. Seventeen pregnant BALB/C mice were divided into control (8 pregnant mice) and treatment group (9 pregnant mice infected by Plasmodium berghei). Placental specimens stained with hematoxylin and eosin were examined to determine the level of cytoadherence by counting the infected erythrocytes in the intervillous space of placenta. Levels of IL-17 and IL-10 in the placenta were measured using ELISA. All fetuses were weighed by analytical balance. Statistical analysis using Structural Equation Modeling showed that cytoadherence caused an increased level of placental IL-17 and a decreased level of placental IL-10. Cytoadherence also caused low fetal weight. The increased level of placental IL-17 caused low fetal weight, and interestingly low fetal weight was caused by a decrease of placental IL-10. It can be concluded that low fetal weight in placental malaria is directly caused by sequestration of the parasites and indirectly by the local imbalance of IL-17 and IL-10 levels.

• Women's Health Nursing
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• v.5 no.2
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• pp.191-203
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• 1999

A clinical study was made on 365 low birth weight infant and 406 normal birth weight infant who had been born at Kangnam St. mary's Hospital during past 3 years from Jan. 1, 1995 to Dec. 31, 1997. the data of this study were gathered through reviewing of medical records. 1. Comparison of general characteristic with of obstetric characteristic 1) Old maternal age, previous abortion and previous LBWI delivery in the group of low birth weight infant(LBWI) mother were more prevalent than those in the group of normal birth weight infant(NBWI)mother 2) Cesarean section, abnormal presentation and multiple pregnancy in the group of LBWI mother were prevalent than those in the group of NBWI mother. 3) regular antenartal care and visiting rate of tertiary hospital in the group of LBWI mother were more prevalent than those in the group of NBWI mother. 2. Frequency of low birth weight infant 1) Anmual average frequency of LBWI was 6.5% and monthly frequency was the highest in January and december. 2) The frequency of LBWI was the highest in 37-40wks of gestational age and was the highest in 2251-2500 gm of birth weight. 3) The frequency of congenital anomaly in the group of LBWI was more prevalent than that of NBWI. 3. Mortality rate of LBWI The mortality rate of LBWI was 9.2%. The highest mortality rate was noted before 27wks of gestational age, less than 1000gm of birth weight and within 12hrs of delivery. 4. The most common complication of pregnant women was pre-term labor, the most complication relating to placenta was premature rupture of membrane(PROM) and the most fetal complication was fetal distress in delivered LBWI. 5. Significant relating factors of low birth weight infant delivery were associated with maternal age, previous delivery, previous low birth weight delivery, pre-eclampsia, anemia, oligohydramnios, PROM, placenta previa, abruptio placenta, fetal sex, fetal distress and congenital anomaly.

• Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing
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• v.41 no.2
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• pp.276-283
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• 2011

Purpose: Prenatal depression is associated with potential negative consequences for the mother and infant. The purpose of this study was to examine pregnant women's stress, and depression and their impact on maternal-fetal attachment and fetal growth. Methods: Data were collected by means of a questionnaire and fetal sonogram from a convenience sample of 166 pregnant women. Results: Women who have a low educational level, poor health and are dissatisfied with their marriage showed low maternal-fetal attachment. Prenatal depression had significant correlations with length of pregnancy and level of stress. Even though correlation between maternal stress and fetal weight (r=-.15, p=.099) and correlation between maternal depression and maternal-fetal attachment (r=-.13, p=.095) were not statistically significant, the impact of the prenatal psychological state of mothers can not be ignored as it relates to fetal health. Conclusion: Maternal-fetal attachment and fetal growth can be affected by maternal emotional state, including stress or depression. These findings suggest that primary care nurses in hospitals and public health centers should provide prenatal depression screening and nursing intervention programs for management and prevention of prenatal stress and depression.

• Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health
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• v.17 no.1
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• pp.251-257
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• 1984

Low birth weight baby, defined as the baby born with less than or equal to 2,500g of body weight by WHO has been a great concern in the fold of maternal and child health since the low birth weight is a major cause of high perinatal mortality. Any measure to prevent the low birth weight baby is most desirable not only for saving the life of a baby but also for levelling up the health of the whole society. The authors attempted to figure out how some known maternal risk factors are related to the low birth weight and to measure their strengh of associations in terms of relative risk using hospital birth records. For this study, hospital birth records of 66 low birth weight cases and sex-parity matched 198 normal controls were chosen from Kangnam St. Mary's Hospital, Catholic Medical Center, and the data were analyzed in regards to several maternal factors. The risk factors studied were mother's age, mother's ABO blood type, previous histories of abortion, low birth weight baby, fetal wastage, and maternal diseases represented by anemia, hypertension, proteinuria, and glucosuria. The results obtained in this study were as follows: 1. The mean body weight of the cases and controls were 1,955g and 3,251g, respectively, and the heights were 41cm for cases and 50cm for controls. Mean gestation periods of cases and controls were 34 weeks and 39 weeks, respectively. 2. Young mother(less than or equal to 20 years of age) or old mother(more than or equal to 30 years of age) experienced more frequently the delivery of low birth weight babies than mothers in between 21 and 29 years of age. But the difference was not statistically significant. 3. Mothers whose blood type was O tended to have slighty higher frequency of low birth weight babies while B mothers have lower frequency. But the difference was not statistically significant too. 4. Those mothers who had experienced low birth weight baby in the past tended to give more births of low birth weight babies. This factor is even statistically significant and the relative risk of the prior experience of low birth weight was 6.7. 5. Mothers with experience of fetal losses and mothers of more than two pregnancies had higher frequency of low birth weight than the mothers with no fatal losses and of first pregnancy, but the difference was not statistically significant. 6. Statistically significant higher frequency of low birth weight were found in mothers with hypertension(odds ratio=4.07), anemia(odds ratio=22,33), and proteinuria(odds ratio=2.79). In summary, these study results strongly suggest that in order to prevent the low birth weight, special care should be made when the mother is too young or too old, and when the mother has experienced deliveries of low birth weight and fetal deaths. Medical control for the maternal diseases such as anemia and hypertension is also needed before or during the pregnency.

• Journal of Yeungnam Medical Science
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• v.15 no.1
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• pp.135-142
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• 1998

Maternal weight gain during pregnancy has been consistently associated with infant birth weight and pregnancy outcome. Our purpose was to determine the relationship between maternal weight gain pattern and birth weight. Consequently, maternal weight gain is monitored carefully and is encouraged during prenatal care in order to improve pregnancy outcome. Our study group included both 424 uncomplicated women and infant delivered at the Yeungnam University Hospital between 1993-1996. All recorded prenatal weight gain measurements were used to estimate maternal trimester weight gain, pattern of gain (based on low versus not-low gain at each trimester), and total gain at delivery. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between these weight gain measurements and fetal birth weight. Each kilogram of maternal gain in the first, second, and third trimesters was associated with statistically related to the increase in fetal birth weight by 31.3, 19.0, and 24.5g, respectively. When compaired with the pattern of gain that was not low in any trimester, patterns with low gain in the first trimesters were associated with significant decreases in birth weight, but no important change in birth weight was seen for the group whose gains were not low in the first trimester. The results suggest that specific patterns of maternal weight gain, particularly weight gain during the first trimester, are related to fetal birth weight.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.3 no.2
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• pp.134-140
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• 2009

Adequate nutrient intake during pregnancy is important to fetal and maternal health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors affecting birth weight and gestational age and to provide basic data to promote more favorable pregnancy outcomes. Data were collected from 234 pregnant women at two hospitals in Seoul. Demographic characteristics, anthropometric measurements and health related habits were obtained using a questionnaire at the hospital visit during the second trimester. Dietary intakes were estimated by 24 hour recall at the hospital visit during the second trimester. Data on pregnancy outcomes, including birth weights and gestational ages, were obtained from hospital records after delivery. Birth weights were divided into a low birth weight group (birth weight<3.1 kg), a normal birth weight group (3.1-3.6 kg) and a high birth weight group (>3.6 kg). Gestational ages were divided into tertiles according to the gestational age of the subjects: group 1 (<38.53 weeks), group 2 (38.53-40.00 weeks) and group 3 (>40.00 weeks). The number of family members was significantly lower in the low birth weight group than in the normal birth weight group (p<0.05). In the low birth weight group, pregnancy weight was significantly lower than in the high birth weight group (p<0.05) Health related habits were not significantly different among any of the groups. Intakes of fiber, phosphorous, iron, vitamin $B_6$ and folic acid were significantly higher in the high birth weight group than the low birth weight group (p<0.05). Gestational age was not significantly affected by nutrient intakes, but birth weight was affected by nutrient intake in the results of this study. Therefore, the adequacy of nutrient intake is important for the improvement of pregnancy outcomes.

• Child Health Nursing Research
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• v.22 no.4
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• pp.317-325
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• 2016

Purpose: Smoking during pregnancy contributes to the risk of negative health outcomes in mothers and babies. The purposes of this study were to review the harmful effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy on fetal and child development, to discuss if maternal smoking should be criminalized as a form of child abuse, and to explore advocating for fetal rights. Methods: A variety of published literature and legal documents including the Korean constitution, criminal laws, and children's welfare laws were reviewed and critically analyzed. Results: Women who smoke during pregnancy are more likely to experience abortion related to placental dysfunction. Their unborn risk premature birth, fetal growth restriction, low birth weight, neurobehavioral disturbances, and/or other complications and newborn babies are also at risk for complications. The advocates for fetal rights can assert that maternal smoking should be regarded as a crime. Conclusion: Findings show that maternal smoking during pregnancy is a major risk factor for many adverse pregnancy outcomes. Effective strategies and health policies for smoking cessation during pregnancy are required to protect pregnant women and their babies.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.31 no.8
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• pp.1263-1269
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• 1998

The maintenance of adequate folate levels in the umbilical cord blood is esential for supplying tissue requirements of fetal growth. However, there is data on folate levels in the cord blood of Korean infant. The present investigation was undertaken to determine folate levels in cord blood and aassess relationships between folate levels and pregnancy outcomes. Dietary and supplementary folate intake was obtained from thirty subjects who were in the third trimester fo pregancy . The umbilical cord blood was drawn at delivery and pregnancy outcomes for the subjects were collected from their medical records. Erythrocyte and plasma folate levels in the cord blood were analyzed. The subjects were divided into two groups ; high folate (HF, $\geq$654ng/ml) and low folate (LF, <654ng/ml) groups according to erythrocyte folate levels in cord blood. Dietary folate intake and the amount of supplemental folates were not significantly different between the two experimental groups. However, infant birth weight (3540$\pm$295g) and placental weight(910$\pm$85g) for the HF group were significantly higher(p=0.0041 and p=0.109, respectively) than those for the LF group, which were 3127 $\pm$419g and 823$\pm$80g , respectively. Although it was not significant, the gestational weight gain for the HF group was 2.8kg higher than that for the LF group. Thus, the erythrocyte folate level in the cord blood was significantly related to infant birth weight and placental weight. These results confirm that a high erythrocyte folate level in the umbilical cord blood promotes both fetal and placental growth and improves gestational weight gain as well.

• Clinical and Experimental Pediatrics
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• v.52 no.2
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• pp.152-158
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• 2009

Reduced fetal growth is independently associated with increased risk of health problems in later life, particularly type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Insulin resistance appears to be a key component underlying these metabolic complications. It is suggested that detrimental fetal environment may program insulin resistance syndrome. An insulin-resistant genotype may also result in both low birth weight and insulin resistance syndrome, and it is likely that the association of low birth weight with insulin resistance is the result of both genetic and environmental factors. Early postnatal rapid catch-up growth is closely related to risk for subsequent metabolic diseases. Fat mass is strikingly reduced in neonates born small for gestational age (SGA), and recent data suggest that insulin resistance seen in catch-up growth is related to the disproportionate catch-up in fat mass compared with lean mass. Endocrine disturbances are also recognized in SGA children, but overt clinical problems are infrequent in childhood. Cognitive impairment is reported in some children born SGA, especially those who do not show catch-up growth, in whom early neurodevelopmental evaluation is required. Breast feeding, also known to be protective against the long-term risk of obesity, may prevent some intellectual impairment in SGA children. Calorie-dense feeding does not seem to be appropriate in SGA infants. We must balance the positive effect of nutrition on neural development against rapid fat deposition and the future risk of insulin resistance.

• Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health
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• v.37 no.4
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• pp.291-299
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• 2004

As there have been growing concerns about the adverse effects of air pollution on birth outcome, studies for this area has been carried out in different populations and sites. We reviewed the epidemiologic studies that evaluated the effects of air pollution on birth outcome such as low birth weight and preterm births. We identified the air pollution exposure during pregnancy was related with low birth weight and preterm birth, although there are differences among studies for the critical period of vulnerability. The biological mechanisms whereby air pollution might influence health of fetus are not clearly established. The exposure to carbon monoxide(CO) during pregnancy could increase fetal carboxyhemoglobin and result in tissue hypoxia. On the other hand, ambient particles less than $10{\mu}m$ in aerodynamic diameter($PM_{10}$) could lead to inflammation and increase blood viscosity. Controlling for potential confounders and valid assessment of exposure are the methodological issues remained in these epidemiologic studies. In the future, more studies are needed to investigate the effect of air pollution on preterm birth or stillbirths, considering the various exposure period and the biological mechanism.