• Safety and Health at Work
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• v.3 no.3
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• pp.216-223
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• 2012

Objectives: The objectives of this study were to determine the lead levels in blood samples from nielloware workers, to determine airborne lead levels, to describe the workers' hygiene behaviors, and to ascertain and describe any correlations between lead levels in blood samples and lead levels in airborne samples. Methods: Blood samples and airborne samples from 45 nielloware workers were collected from nielloware workplaces in Nakhon Sri Thammarat Province, Thailand. Lead levels were determined by flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS), at a wavelength of 283.3 nm. FAAS was used especially adequate for metals at relatively high concentration levels. Results: The geometric mean of the 45 airborne lead levels was 81.14 ${\mu}g/m^3$ (range 9.0-677.2 ${\mu}g/m^3$). The geometric mean blood lead level of the 45 workers was 16.25 ${\mu}g/dL$ (range 4.59-39.33 ${\mu}g/dL$). No worker had a blood lead level > 60 ${\mu}g/dL$. A statistically significantly positive correlation was found between airborne lead level and blood lead levels (r = 0.747, p < 0.01). It was observed that personal hygiene was poor; workers smoked and did not wash their hands before drinking or eating. It was concluded that these behaviors had a significant correlation with blood lead levels (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Improvements in working conditions and occupational health education are required due to the correlation found between blood leads and airborne lead levels.

• Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health
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• v.30 no.4 s.59
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• pp.741-751
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• 1997

Measurement of blood lead (PbB) and blood zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP) are most common biological indices to identify the individual at risk for excess or the health sequences by lead exposure. Because PbB is known most important and reliable index of lead exposure, PbB is often regarded as a gold standard to detect lead exposure. But in Korea PbB is a secondary test item of detailed health check-up with positive finding of screening test in most occasion. Our lead standard requires all lead workers to take annual heath-check twice a year for investigation of their health effect due to lead exposure. Blood ZPP is one of most important index to detect high lead absorption in lead workers as a screening test. Measurement of blood ZPP is known ,well to correlate with PbB in steady state of exposure in most lead workers and is often used as a primary screening test to detect high lead absorption of lead workers with the advantage of simplicity, easiness, portability and low cost. The current cut-off criteria of blood ZPP for further detailed health check-up is $100{\mu}g/d\ell$ which is supposed to match the level of $40{\mu}g/d\ell$ of PbB according to our standard. Authors tried to investigate the validity of current criteria of cut-off level $(100{\mu}g/d\ell)$ of blood ZPP and possible another better cut-off level of it to detect the lead workers whose PbB level over $40{\mu}g/d\ell$. The subjects in our study were 212 male workers in three small scale storage battery industries. Blood ZPP, PbB and hemoglobin (Hb) were selected as the indices of lead exposure. The results were as follows. 1. The mean of blood ZPP, PbB and Hb in lead workers were $79.5{\pm}46.7{\mu}g/d\ell,\;38.7{\pm}15.1{\mu}g/d\ell,\;and\;14.8{\pm}1.2g/d\ell$, respectively. There were significant differences in blood ZPP, PbB and Hb by industry (P<0.01). 2. The percents of lead workers whose blood ZPP were above $100{\mu}g/d\ell$ in the group of work duration below 1, 1-4, 5-9 and above 10 years were 8.6%, 17.2%, 47.6%, and 50.0%, respectively. The percents of lead workers whose PbB were above $40{\mu}g/d\ell$ in those were 31.4%, 40.4%, 71.4%, and 86.4%, respectively. 3. The percents of lead workers whose PbB were below $40{\mu}g/d\ell$, $40-59{\mu}g/d\ell$ and above $60{\mu}g/d\ell$ were 54.7%, 34.9% and 10.4%, respectively. Those of lead workers whose blood ZPP were below $100{\mu}g/d\ell$, $100-149{\mu}g/d\ell$ and above $150{\mu}g/d\ell$ were 79.2%, 13.7% and 7.1%, respectively. 4. Simple linear regression of PbB on blood ZPP was statistically significant (P<0.01) and as PbB was $40{\mu}g/d\ell$, blood ZPP was $82.1{\mu}g/d\ell$. 5. While the highest sensitivity and specificity of blood ZPP test to detect lead workers with PbB eve. $40{\mu}g/d\ell$ were observed in the cut-off level of $50{\mu}g/d\ell$ and $100{\mu}g/d\ell$ of blood ZPP, respectively, the highest validity (sensitivity+specificity) of blood ZPP to detect lead workers with PbB over $40{\mu}g/d\ell$ was observed in the cut-off level of around $70{\mu}g/d\ell$ of blood ZPP. But even with optimal cut-off level of around $70{\mu}g/d\ell$ of blood ZPP, still 25.0% of false negative and 20.7% false positive lead workers were found. As the result of this study, it was suggested that reconsideration of current blood ZPP cut-off of our lead standard from $100{\mu}g/d\ell$ to somewhat lower level such as around $70{\mu}g/d\ell$ and the inclusion of PbB measurement as a primary screening test for lead workers was highly recommended for the effective prevention of lead workers.

• Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health
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• v.13 no.1
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• pp.41-46
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• 1980

In order to study the effect of lead exposure on the hematocrit and hemoglobin values in accordance with the level of lead exposure, twenty-four Sprague-Dawley rats were equally divided into four groups of six rats each. Lead acetate disolved in glucose was injected intraperitoneally six times a week, for four weeks with dose of 0.05 mg/kg/day for group I, 0.5 mg/kg/day for group II, and 5 mg/kg/day for group III. Control group was injected glucose only. Blood samples for the checking of the hematocrit and hemoglobin values, were taking from tail vein of rats before lead injection and on the third, seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days after lead injection. And also, the concentration of lead and ALA in urine were checked for evaluating the lead absorption. The results were as follows: 1. The alteration of the hematocrit and hemoglobin values of the group I was not significant as that of the control group. 2. In group II, the hematocrit values were significantly decreased from the fourteenth day after lead injection, and the hemoglobin values were decreased from the twenty-first day after lead injection when the concentration of lead in urine was elevated more than $260{\mu}g/liter$. 3. In group III, the hematocrit values were decreased from the seventh day after lead injection, and the hemoglobin values were decreased even from the third day after lead injection. And the hemoglobin values were more rapidly decreased than the hematocrit values. 4. In all groups, the correlation coefficient between hematocrit and hemoglobin was highly significant. And the difference between the correlation coefficient of the group III and that of the others was highly significant.

• Biomedical Science Letters
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• v.10 no.4
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• pp.453-457
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• 2004

The welders and car painters are frequently exposed to heavy metals such as lead, zinc, cadmium and chromium, and those are a major source of heavy metal poisoning. This study was carried out to investigate the relationship of the heavy metal level in blood by age, working duration, and smoking status among 105 industrial workers and 88 general people in Gyeongnam province from October 2003 to October 2004. The heavy metal level in blood was analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Mean blood lead level in exposed group and control group was 8.40±4.67μl/dl, 1.82±1.35μl/dl, respectively. Mean blood zinc level in exposed group and control group was 9.43±5.38 ㎍/ml, 2.89±1.79㎍/ml, respectively. Mean blood cadmium level in Exposed group and control group was 1.53±1.05μl/dl, 0.60±0.49 μl/dl, respectively. Mean blood chromium level in exposed group and control group was 0.89±0.76μl/dl, 0.68±0.63μl/dl, respectively. Lead, zinc, cadmium and chromium level in blood of exposed group was significantly higher than that of control group. In the comparison of smoking status, lead, zinc and cadmium level of smoker's was significantly higher than that of non-smoker's. Comparison of heavy metal level by age, lead, zinc, cadmium level in 40's, 50's (exposed group) in blood significantly higher than that of 20's, 30's. In exposed group, working duration has no significant difference. In conclusion, smoking was the most hazardous factor to elevate in blood heavy metal levels.

• Safety and Health at Work
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• v.5 no.3
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• pp.113-117
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• 2014

The mechanisms by which iron is absorbed are similar to those of divalent metals, particularly manganese, lead, and cadmium. These metals, however, show different toxicokinetics in relation to menarche or menopause, although their interaction with iron is the same. This review focuses on the kinetics of these three toxic metals (manganese, lead, and cadmium) in relation to menarche, pregnancy, and menopause. The iron-manganese interaction is the major factor determining sex-specific differences in blood manganese levels throughout the whole life cycle. The effects of estrogen overshadow the association between iron deficiency and increased blood lead concentrations, explaining why women, despite having lower ferritin concentrations, have lower blood lead concentrations than men. Iron deficiency is associated with elevated cadmium levels in premenopausal women, but not in postmenopausal women or men; these findings indicate that sex-specific differences in cadmium levels at older ages are not due to iron-cadmium interactions, and that further studies are required to identify the source of these differences. In summary, the potential causes of sex-specific differences in the blood levels of manganese, lead, and cadmium differ from each other, although all these three metals are associated with iron deficiency. Therefore, other factors such as estrogen effects, or absorption rate as well as iron deficiency, should be considered when addressing environmental exposure to toxic metals and sex-specific differences in the blood levels of these metals.

• Asian Journal of Atmospheric Environment
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• v.7 no.1
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• pp.56-63
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• 2013

Children are particularly vulnerable to adverse health effects associated with heavy metal exposure. The goal of this study was to investigate the relationship between proximity to an industry complex and blood lead and urinary cadmium levels for children aged 7-13 who lived in Ulsan where a big petrochemical complex is located. We conducted a questionnaire survey to collect data including sociodemographics, daily habits, residential environment, etc. We also analyzed blood lead and urinary cadmium levels using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS). Data were analyzed using regression analysis. All statistical analyses were conducted with SAS software version 9.2. We calculated distance by using a Geographic Information System (ArcGIS version 10.0). The geometric mean blood lead level was 1.55 ${\mu}g/dL$ (boys: 1.59 ${\mu}g/dL$, girls: 1.51 ${\mu}g/dL$), and the geometric mean urinary cadmium level was 0.51 ${\mu}g/g$ creatinine (boys: 0.45 ${\mu}g/g$ creatinine, girls: 0.58 ${\mu}g/g$ creatinine). In the results of regression analyses, we found that urinary cadmium levels significantly decreased as distance between residence and industrial complex increased after adjusting for age, gender, income, passive smoking and the length of residence. This result was opposite to that for lead levels. Our observations support the hypothesis that urinary cadmium levels in children are related to their proximity to an industrial complex.

• Korean journal of applied entomology
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• v.18 no.1 s.38
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• pp.43-48
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• 1979

This study was conducted to detect lead which is exhausted with gas from running automobiles and is considered to accumulate in cropping lands. Soil samples were taken from uplands and paddy fields with different distance from highways. atonic absorption spectrophotometer was applied for analysis. Results obtained are summarized as follows: 1. In the areas of Seoul toll gate and Jookjeon, Gyeonggi province, soils of fields within $3\~5$ meters from highway appeared to contain $11\~110\;ppm$ of lead. On the other hand, soils outside of $3\~5$ meters showed only natural background level of lead. 2. The maximum concentration of lead in Hwoedeuk area (Choong-nam p개vince) was 16.3 ppm and those of Kimhae and Dongrae areas were about 12 ppm. Low concentration of $1\~4\;ppm$ was observed in the areas, south of Daejeon along the Honam and Namhae highways. 3. Lead seemed to accumulate in the soil surface within the range of 0 to 5 centimeters which anable to expect little translocation to deeper layer of the soil. 4. lost of arable lands locates at least 15 meters apart from highways so that lead concentrations were lower than expected. No damage could be speculated with the present concentration of lead analyzed. This does not deny the necessity to the long term dectect of the possible pollutant.

• Analytical Science and Technology
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• v.7 no.4
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• pp.555-561
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• 1994

A method was described for the graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometric determination of trace cadmium, copper, chromium and lead in urine samples. The elements were directly determined without any other treatments. The ash temperature was intensively optimized to improve the large background by the removal of organic materials and alkali and alkali earth metals in urine samples. Two kinds of standard solutions were used to plot calibration curves. From the recovery data, it could be confirmed that the analytical results with the synthetic urine matrix similar to real urine were more accurate than with a deionized water matrix.

• Toxicological Research
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• v.32 no.4
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• pp.281-287
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• 2016

Earlier studies conducted on lead-exposed workers have determined the reticulocyte count (RC) (%), but the parameters of Absolute Reticulocyte Count (ARC), Reticulocyte Index (RI), and Reticulocyte Production Index (RPI) were not reported. This study assessed the effect of lead (Pb) exposure on the status of reticulocyte count indices in workers occupied in lead battery plants. The present cross-sectional study was carried out on 391 male lead battery workers. The blood lead levels (BLL) were determined by using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. The RC (%) was estimated by using the supravital staining method. The parameters, such as ARC, RI, and RPI, were calculated by using the RC (%) with the red cell indices (RBC count and hematocrit). The levels of RBC count and hematocrit were determined by using an ABX Micros ES-60 hematology analyzer. The levels of reticulocyte count indices - RC (%), ARC, RI, and RPI significantly increased with elevated BLL. The association between BLL and reticulocyte count indices was positive and significant. The results of linear multiple regression analysis showed that the reticulocyte count (${\beta}=0.212$, P < 0.001), ARC (${\beta}=0.217$, P < 0.001), RI (${\beta}=0.194$, P < 0.001), and RPI (${\beta}=0.208$, P < 0.001) were positively associated with BLL. The variable, smoking habits, showed a significant positive association with reticulocyte count indices: RC (%) (${\beta}=0.188$, P < 0.001), ARC (${\beta}=0.174$, P < 0.001), RI (${\beta}=0.200$, P < 0.001), and RPI (${\beta}=0.151$, P < 0.005). The study results revealed that lead exposure may cause reticulocytosis with an increase of reticulocyte count indices.

• Korean Journal of Veterinary Research
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• v.33 no.3
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• pp.493-505
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• 1993

Present experiments were undertaken in order to clarify the clinico-pathological characteristics of lead poisoning in goats. Twenty goats were divided into three experimental groups(A, B and C) and a control(D). The three experimental groups received diets contaminated artificially with 10(A group), 200(B group) and $1,000(C group){\mu}g/g$ of lead for 70 days, respectively. The control group received normal diets. Hair samples collected one or two weeks interval were examed for the lead content. On day 70. all the animals were necropsied and various organs were examined pathoanatomically. In addition, various organs were analyzed for lead, zine, copper, iron and calcium content by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. From these experiments following results were obtained ; The lead content of hair was significantly increased from the $42^{nd}$, $21^{st}$ or $14^{th}$ day in all the three groups, which showed significant correlation with lead content of liver and spleen. The lead content of various organs including kidney, liver, spleen, ileum, bone and abomasum were significantly increased in accordance with the lead contamination. The increase was most prominent in abomasal wall. The zinc and copper content of liver, brain, ileum, skin, kidney, lung or muscle were increased in B and C groups whereas the iron and calcium content showed no significant change. Pathoanatomically, degeneration or necrosis of proximal convoluted tubules of kidney, peripheral necrosis of liver, fundic gland necrosis of abomasum and cerebral edema were observed in B and C groups.