• Journal of the Korean Dietetic Association
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• v.12 no.1
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• pp.10-17
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• 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the correlation between nutrient intakes and bone mineral density in female university students. A total 27 female university students were measured the anthropometric characteristics, dietary intake and the bone mineral density of carpus using DEXA. The average age, height, weight, % body fat, WHR, and BMI of the subjects were 22.7 years, 161.5 cm, 57.0 kg, 29.9%, 0.8, 21.8 kg/$m^2$, respectively. Bone mineral density of ultradis and distal carpus as T-value were -1.5 and -0.4, respectively. The daily energy intake of the subjects was 1589.0kcal. And the intakes of energy, calcium, iron, zinc, vitamin $B_2$, and folic acid did not meet the Korean RDAs. The daily total food intake of the subjects was 1011.0g and food intake from cereals and vegetables was high. The major food groups of mineral intake were vegetables/cereals/milks/fishes for calcium, cereals/meat/vegetables/fishes for phosphorus, cereals/vegetables/meats for iron, seasonings/vegetables/cereals for sodium, vegetables/cereals/seasonings for potassium, and cereals/meats for zinc. The body weight and body mass index were significantly positive correlated to the bone mineral density of average carpus, respectively. The intakes of animal calcium and vitamin $B_2$ were significantly negative correlated to the bone mineral density of average carpus, respectively. In conclusion, bone mineral density in carpus and nutrient intakes of some female university students were low. Therefore, health management and the study on relation between bone mineral density in various site and long-term intakes of nutrients in many subjects are required.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Culture
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• v.30 no.4
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• pp.406-412
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• 2015

The purpose of this study was to analyze average kimchi intake, general characteristics, frequency of daily meal intake, intakes of vegetables and fruits, and nutrient intakes in four serving size groups based on data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010~2012. The results showed an average amount of kimchi intake in subjects of 115.6 g, ranging from 0 g to 605.94 g. For daily meal intake except snacking according to kimchi serving size, all daily meal intakes increased significantly with increasing kimchi serving size (p<0.0001), and tendency of kimchi intake increased with more eating-out. As kimchi serving size increased, total intakes of vegetables and salted vegetables increased significantly (p<0.0001). However, unsalted vegetables intake did not show significant difference. Intake of fruits also increased with increasing kimchi serving size. As the serving size of kimchi increased, intakes of energy, carbohydrates, protein, fat, sodium, and potassium increased significantly (p<0.0001). For intake of sodium, intakes of all groups exceeded 2,000 mg, which is the recommended level for Koreans. Moreover, the fourth serving size group consumed three times (6,546.35 mg) more sodium than the recommended level.

• Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.4 no.3
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• pp.143-150
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• 2002

The objective of this study is to establish outcome validity for three instruments that assess whether subjects met recommendations for daily servings of fruits and vegetables for“Stage of Change”research. A convenience sample of 294 college students was recruited from introductory nutrition classes at Michigan State University in the United States. To measure servings of fruits and vegetables, separately, three types of methods (self-rated intake, 24-hour recall and food frequency) were used in comparison to the servings from a three-day food record, the criterion used. The outcome validity was assessed based on whether or not at least two servings of fruits and three servings of vegetables were reported. Validity was assessed by sensitivity, to measure the ability to detect low intakes, and by specificity, to measure ability to detect adequate intakes. Cohen's kappa was used as well to examine the agreement between the three methods and a three-day food record. The results showed, for fruits, the 24-hour recall had the best agreement (recall 0.54, self-rated : 0.31, food frequency : 0.29) with a three-day food record for servings consumed by people in pre-action or post-action stages. Sensitivity for fruit was also best using a recall (0.81). For vegetables, however, all three methods had low agreement (food frequency : 0.27, recall : 0.21, self-rated : 0.17) with the results of the three-day food record. Self-rated intakes for vegetables had the best sensitivity (0.66) and the food frequency had the best specificity (0.73). Therefore, researcher can use the 24-hour recall method to identify people who consume inadequate servings of fruit. To detect adequate vegetable intake, the food frequency was best of the three methods. Accuracy may be improved by probing for vegetables in mixed dishes and on sandwiches. (J Community Nutrition 4(3)： 143∼150, 2002)

• Nutritional Sciences
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• v.7 no.2
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• pp.113-120
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• 2004

This study was conducted to investigate variables related to dietary fiber intake among sixth grade children in an elementary school in Daejon city. One hundred and forty-seven children completed a questionnaire for determining their socioeconomic background and their food habits. Anthropometric measurements were taken, and a 24-hour diet recall method was used to collect three-day food intakes. The socioeconomic status of the children's families belonged to the upper middle class; 53.0% of their fathers and 25.8% of their mothers had completed college or higher degrees. 27.9% of the mothers had jobs, including part-time jobs. Approximately 30% of the children skipped breakfast, 66.4% of the children preferred animal foods to plant foods, and 52.4% of the children preferred green vegetables to yellow or pale vegetables. Grilled meat dishes, such as Grilled beef rib with seasoning, Bulgogi, grilled pork belly and beef steaks, were the most popular types of food eaten outside home by the children. Daily dietary fiber intake was 14.5 g in boys and 14.5 g in girls, and these intakes are low compared to the standard guidelines. The average intakes of energy and protein of the children were 84.5% and 114.0% of the Korean Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), respectively. Besides energy, riboflavin, iron and calcium intakes were below the RDAs, and especially calcium intake was only 50% of the RDAs. On the other hand, thiamin, niacin, ascorbic acid, protein and phosphorus intakes exceeded the Korean RDAs. Family income or the children's body mass index (BMI) was not directly related to dietary fiber intakes. However, higher dietary fiber intakes tended to be related to higher intakes of green vegetables and fruits. Children with higher dietary fiber intake tended to prefer plant foods to animal foods. Energy and most nutrients, except heme iron and retinol, showed positive relationships with dietary fiber intake. Especially potassium and plant origin protein and calcium were highly correlated with dietary fiber intakes(r＞0.6). From these results, it is concluded that dietary fiber intakes of these sixth grade elementary school children were less than the standard reference and it is anticipated to decrease further in the future with increased incomes. Therefore, increased intakes of dietary fiber by elementary school children should be promoted through nutrition education, together with the development of cooking methods and recipes utilizing green vegetables and fruits.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.27 no.1
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• pp.59-69
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• 1994

Dietary fiber(DF) intakes of Korean during 1969∼1990 were estimated and the major food sources of fiber were analyzed using the data from the Annual Reports of Korean National Nutrition Survey. The estimated daily DF intake of Korean has gradually decreased during the 22 years, from 24.46g in 1969 to 17.31g in 1990 with a remarkable decline in 1987. The average DF intakes of the rural population were higher than those fo urban's until 1980, but the situation was reversed until 1987 and the regional difference in DF consumption disappeared thereafter. Vegetables, cereals, grain and legumes were the major sources of fiber for Korean in recent 5 years(1986∼1990), providing 32%, 16% and 19% of DF intake respectively. Throughout the 22years, the intakes of DF from cereals and fresh vegetables have been reduced and those from processed vegetables, seaweeds and fruits has been increased. Df intake from legumes continuously increased until 1986, and it decreased thereafter. Rural population consumed more fiber from cereals than the urban's during the 1970s, but thereafter regional difference in cereal fiber intakes became insignificant. Urban population consumed more fiber from legumes and fruits than the rural's through the entire period. The results of this study indicate that the present DF intake of Korean is considerably lower than generally anticipated and is below the tentative recommended DF intake and thus higher DF intake than the present level is needed.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.42 no.2
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• pp.146-157
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• 2009

Korean diet is high in plant foods but also high in salted vegetables. World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) recommends consumption of fruits and vegetables excluding salted vegetables for prevention cancer. This study aimed to analyze relations between intakes of salted and non-salted vegetables and socioeconomic factors, providing a data for targeted groups in promotion of fruits and vegetables consumption. Dietary and socioeconomic status data of the 5,400 subjects over 30 years of age from the 2005 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANESIII) were used. Dietary intake data from KNHANESIII was obtained by one day 24-hour recall method. Mean daily intakes of salted vegetables, non-salted vegetables and fruits of subjects were 151 g, 237 g, and 71 g respectively. Mean daily intake of salted vegetables was significantly higher in men than women for daily amount (173 g vs. 133 g) as well as percentage of total food intake (9.9% vs. 9.6%). Subjects living in rural area consumed more salted vegetables. Salted vegetables as percent of total food were lower in subjects with higher education levels (p < 0.001). Intakes of non-salted vegetables were significantly affected by age and gender. Intake levels of fruit were significantly higher in younger groups, in females, and subjects with higher income and education levels (p < 0.05). Average intake of fruits and non-salted vegetables was 307 g, lower than WCRF recommended level of 400 g for personal guideline. Intake of salted vegetables was positively correlated with sodium intake (Pearson's correlation coefficient, r = 0.43) but less so with potassium (r = 0.16) and other micronutrients intake (r < 0.1). On the other hand, non-salted vegetables had higher correlations with potassium (r = 0.45), carotene (r = 0.38), vitamin A (r = 0.37), iron (r = 0.34) and low for sodium (r = 0.13). Fruits intake was highly correlated with vitamin C intake (r = 0.46). Proportion of subjects satisfying WCRF personal guideline of fruits and non-salted vegetables was 25.7%. Results of this study indicate that intake of salted vegetable is considerably high among Koreans, and it is highly correlated with sodium intake and less so with other micronutrients.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.15 no.4
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• pp.525-535
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• 2010

The purpose of this study was to provide basic data for nutritional education for juveniles' desirable vegetable intake by analyzing their vegetable intake, dietary habit and nutrient intakes according to gender of middle school students in Chungnam. The average age of the subjects was 15.0, height was 162.5 cm, weight was 53.5 kg and their average BMI was $20.1kg/m^2$. The frequency of eating supper in girls was lower than that in boys. Many respondents answered that a meal-time was 10~20 minutes. Without gender difference, more than 90% respondents thought that vegetables were good for health. As for the preference of vegetable, subjects responded, "I am in the middle", "I like them", "I dislike them", "I like them very much", and "I dislike them very much" in order, without gender difference. The frequent eaten leaf vegetable was Chinese cabbage, the frequent eaten fruit vegetable was cucumber, and the frequent eaten root vegetable was radish. The favorite leaf vegetable was lettuce, the favorite fruit vegetable was corn, and the favorite root vegetable was sweet potato. The preference degrees of taro and ginger were very low. The reasons why they liked a vegetable were that it was delicious and they ate it at home often. In addition, the reason why they disliked vegetables was that they are untasty in flavor or texture and it showed that many students had a prejudice that vegetables were untasty. The intakes of plant protein, dietary fiber, ash and INQs of dietary fiber, calcium, vitamin C, folate, vitamin E in the group with high preference of vegetables were significantly higher than those of low preference group. The study results indicate that intake frequency and preference of root vegetables in juveniles are low and the major reasons of these results are taste and eating experience of vegetables. In addition, the intake amounts of dietary fiber and folate are poor in the subjects with low preference of vegetables. Therefore, families and schools should make efforts that juveniles can recognize the importance of vegetable intake and select various vegetables properly through the development of cooking methods and systematic nutrition education.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.1 no.1
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• pp.46-51
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• 2007

The study objectives were to increase both the stage of readiness to eat fruit and vegetables as well as the intakes of women who participated in the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) for families with limited incomes. The intervention was to enhance the currently used curriculum, Eating Right Is Basic III (ERIB3), with stage-specific processes based on the Trans-Theoretical Model of readiness to change. Trained EFNEP community workers taught the enhanced curriculum to 90 mothers in the experimental county and to 53 mothers in the control county. Pre- and post-intervention measures included stages of readiness to eat fruit and vegetables and to intake as assessed by 24-hour dietary recalls and staging questions. Most women recruited into EFNEP were in Action and Preparation Stages (53.5%). Fruit and vegetable intakes showed a linear trend along with the Stage of Change for fruit and vegetable. After intervention, some combination of the ERIB3 and the fruit and vegetables-enhanced ERIB3 resulted in a reported 1/2 servings/day increase in fruits and vegetables in both the control and the experimental counties, although changes were not significant. EFNEP women also moved along the Stage of Change Continuum for fruits and vegetables in both counties. The percentage of people who ate 5 or more servings of fruit and vegetables was significant, however, only in the experimental group. We encourage health professionals to apply lessons learned from this intervention and to continue to pursue theoretically based interventions to change dietary behaviors.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.11 no.5
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• pp.661-672
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• 2006

This study was performed to determine the dietary risk factors associated with hypertension. The hypertensive group were composed of 112 hypertensive patients (male 53, female 59) who first visited the hypertension clinic and had been diagnosed as having primary hypertension ($SBP{\ge}140mmHg\;or\;DBP{\ge}90mmHg$). The regular visitors or the subjects on special diets or medical therapies were excluded. The normal group consisted of as subjects (male 41, female 54) matched with age and socioeconomic levels. The subjects having higher intakes (above the 75 percentile) in energy, protein, iron, vitamin A or C showed significantly higher hypertension risk estimated with odds ratio after the covariance factors (age, sex and BMI) were adjusted. More than 2400 mg of sodium (6 g of salt) intake was associated with significantly higher risk of hypertension (odds ratio: 1.773, CI: 1.014-3.014 for $SBP{\ge}140mmHg$; odds ratio: 2.373, CI: 1.359-4.215 for $DBP{\ge}90mmHg$). Hypertensive group showed significantly increased intakes of vegetables and fish and shell fish compared to the normal group. When the vegetable intakes were classified into Kimchi, fresh vegetables and cooked vegetables with seasoning, the hypertensive group was observed as having higher intakes of Kimchi and cooked vegetables with seasoning. The intakes of highest quartile for vegetables (${\ge}327g/day$) (odds ratio: 3.164, CI: 1.740-5.752), fish and their products (${\ge}102g/day$) (odds ratio: 2.756, CI: 1.486-5.109), grains(${\ge}311g/day$) (odds ratio 2.393, CI: 1.186-4.832), meats and their product (${\ge}106g$) (odds ratio: 2.210, CI: 1.225 - 3.987) compared to the lower were significantly associated with the higher risk of hypertension estimated with DBP (${\ge}90mmHg$) after covariance factors were adjusted. In conclusion, our findings confirm that higher intake of energy or sodium are associated with the increased risk of hypertension. Because increased intake of vegetable or fish was associated with the higher risk of hypertension, in contrast with the finding of western countries, choosing or preparation of vegetables or fish with reduced salt is recommended.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.22 no.6
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• pp.507-519
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• 2017

Objectives: The objective of this study was to examine the relations between total vegetable and Kimchi intakes and the risk of metabolic syndrome (Mets) in Korean adults. Methods: This study used dietary intake and health data of 6668 subjects aged 20 years and over from the 2010-2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES). Daily intakes of total vegetables and Kimchi were assessed by 24-hour recall data. The odds ratio of Mets risk according to daily intake of vegetables and Kimchi was analyzed, respectively. Results: The highest consumption of total vegetables was associated with a lower risk of abdominal obesity (multivariable adjusted OR=0.56, 95% CI: 0.33, 0.93) in men and lower risk of Mets (multivariable adjusted OR=0.67, 95% CI: 0.47, 0.94) in women. Kimchi consumption was not related to the risk of Mets in both men and in women. However, a higher intake of Kimchi was associated with an increased risk of elevated blood pressure (Q1 vs Q5, multivariable adjusted OR=1.34, 95% CI: 0.95, 1.90, P for trend= 0.0261) in women. Conclusions: A higher intake of vegetables was associated with decreased risk of abdominal obesity and Mets in both men and women, respectively. A higher consumption of Kimchi was not related to the risk of Mets in both in men and in women. However, a higher intake of Kimchi was associated with an increased risk of elevated blood pressure in women.