• Journal of Environmental Health Sciences
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• v.47 no.1
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• pp.78-86
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• 2021

Objectives: The purposes of this study were to investigate the installation rates and status of indoor smoking rooms in public facilities and to determine the level of compliance level with smoke-free policies in accordance with the National Health Promotion Act. Methods: A visiting survey was conducted on 1,206 public facilities in the Seoul Metropolitan Area and the Daegu and Gyeongsangbuk-do Province area. Researchers selected public facilities such as bars, coffee houses, and internet cafes using convenient sampling. They visited without prior notice, checked the existence of indoor smoking rooms, and recorded their status. Results: Internet cafes (110/116) had the highest installation rate of indoor smoking rooms, followed by bowling clubs (17/19) and billiard rooms (87/100). Depending on the type of business, 50-88% of smoking rooms were not completely enclosed. Coin karaoke rooms showed the least inadequacy in this regard. In addition, out of 512 smoking rooms, in 33% (n = 169) smoking indoors was observed in non-smoking areas. Only 9% of public facilities were in full compliance with the indoor smoke-free regulation. Conclusions: It was found that most of the public facilities with indoor smoking rooms did not comply with the smoke-free policy, and smoking was still observed inside some facilities. Therefore, there is a need for a policy that prohibits indoor smoking rooms completely.

• Journal of Environmental Health Sciences
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• v.27 no.3
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• pp.87-98
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• 2001

There has been increased interest in the health effects of the Environmental Tobacco Smoke(ETS) as a confirmed human carcinogen. It has been known to be extremely difficult to make an accurate assessment of exposure to ETS since it is consisted of a variety of components and there are a number of labile chemicals. Therefore, it is necessary to obtain, to interpretate and to provide the data of quantitative exposure assessment to ETS in the field of environmental health. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the concentration of ETS using VOC in indoor office environments. The correlations and concentrations of benzene, RSP, 3-EP, nicotine that are indicators for ETS were investigate with smoking density, air change per hour(ventilation rate). Air samples were taken in smoking room(7 sites), smoking allowed office (3 sites), corridor outside smoking room(7 sites), non-smoking office (9 sites). The concentrations of benzene showed significant difference according to category of indoor office environments. The geometric mean concentration of benzene were 23.56 ${\mu}{\textrm}{m}$/㎥(range 4.80~192.90 ${\mu}{\textrm}{m}$/㎥) in smoking rooms. 6.16 ${\mu}{\textrm}{m}$/㎥ in smoking allowed offices, 1.32 ${\mu}{\textrm}{m}$/㎥ in the non-smoking offices respectively. The ratios of the concentration of benzene between outdoor air and smoking room, smoking allowed office, and non-smoking indicators concentrations, SD, and SI were 0.82(benzene and nicotine). 0.76(benzene and RSP), 0.60(benzene and SD), 0.76(benzene and SI). It is proposed that benzene is a good indicator for ETS.

• Journal of Korean Society for Atmospheric Environment
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• v.6 no.1
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• pp.73-84
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• 1990

The study was carried out to investigate the extent of indoor air pollution in living rooms of apartment houses(residential area) and offices(traffic area A : no smoking space, B : smoking space) in Seoul and to determine the health significance of indoor air pollution. Indoor and outdoor concentrations of major air pollutants were observed simultaneously from February 13 to 17, and July 24 to 28, 1988. The concentrations of carbon monoxide(CO), nitrogen oxides(NOx), sulfur dioxide($SO_2$), carbon dioxide($CO_2$) and total suspended particulate(TSP) in living room and offices were measured and the results were summarized as follows: 1. Both in summer and in winter, the indoor concentrations of CO, $CO_2$, and TSP in offices were higher than the outdoor concentrations, on the other hand, $SO_2$ was higher in the outdoors and NOx was lower than the outdoor concentration only in office A where smoking is not permitted. 2. The indoor and outdoor pollution of offices in winter was significantly higher than that in summer, and the concentrations of CO, NOx and $SO_2$ in indoor and outdoor air in living room in winter were also higher than those in summer. These results suggest that indoor levels of air pollutants are affected by smoking and winter heating systems.

• Journal of Environmental Health Sciences
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• v.44 no.3
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• pp.267-274
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• 2018

Objectives: This study examined the impact of a smoke-free policy on indoor air quality at indoor recreation facilities by assessing $PM_{2.5}$ concentrations before and after the implementation of the new policy. Methods: Using real-time monitors, $PM_{2.5}$ concentrations were measured in 50 billiard rooms and 50 golf simulator rooms in Seoul, Korea. The characteristics of the indoor recreation facilities, smoking status, and atmospheric conditions were recorded at the same time.After the enforcement of a smoke-free policy, $PM_{2.5}$ concentrations, installation of smoking room, and smoking status were examined when the facilities were revisited. Results: Almost a half of the billiard rooms and over 80% of golf simulator rooms were located underground. Seventy percent of the billiard rooms and one hundred percent of the golf simulator rooms were equipped with a local exhaust ventilation system. After the implementation of the smoke-free policy, 46% of the billiard rooms and 20% of the golf simulator rooms newly installed a smoking room. In the billiard rooms with a newly-installed smoking room, the $PM_{2.5}$ concentrations decreased from 97.9 to $45.6{\mu}g/m^3$ after the implementation of the smoke-free policy. The same change of 29.0 to $ 26.3{\mu}g/m^3$ was not statistically significant in golf simulator rooms. Indoor $PM_{2.5}$ concentrations were correlated with outdoor $PM_{2.5}$ concentrations, number of smokers, and number of people in the room. Conclusions: The smoke-free policy for indoor recreation facilities was not effective at making the indoor spaces free from second hand smoke. Although a few billiard rooms installed a smoking room, indoor $PM_{2.5}$ concentrations were still higher than those of outdoor $PM_{2.5}$ or atmospheric $PM_{2.5}$. Stricter enforcement of the smoke-free policy should be achieved to prevent secondhand smoke exposure.

• Journal of Environmental Health Sciences
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• v.37 no.1
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• pp.44-49
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• 2011

Under the Enforcement Rules of the National Health Promotion Act, smoking areas in coffee shops in Korea should be divided off from other areas. The effect on indoor air quality of different division types for smoking areas was evaluated. Using real-time monitors, fine particulate matter <2.5 ${\mu}m$ in diameter ($PM_{2.5}$) concentrations were measured simultaneously in the smoking and non-smoking areas of 30 coffee shops in Seoul. Average $PM_{2.5}$ concentrations in smoking and non-smoking areas were 132 ${\mu}g/m^3$ and 52 ${\mu}g/m^3$, respectively; significantly different. Average $PM_{2.5}$ concentrations in non-smoking areas were 39 ${\mu}g/m^3$ in the glass-wall type and 64 ${\mu}g/m^3$ in the separate-floor type. These $PM_{2.5}$ levels were above the US national ambient air quality standard of 35 ${\mu}g/m^3$. Although indoor $PM_{2.5}$ levels in non-smoking areas were reduced by the division, the rates of reduction were not significantly different by division type. Our results demonstrated that $PM_{2.5}$ from smoking areas can infiltrate into non-smoking areas. Therefore, a complete indoor smoking ban in coffee shops is the only way to protect customers and workers in non-smoking areas.

• Journal of Korean Society for Atmospheric Environment
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• v.9 no.E
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• pp.358-363
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• 1993

Total particulate mater (TPM), $NO_2$ and $NH_3$ were measured simultaneously in the smoking and non-smoking locations during an eleven month period from March 1986 to January 1987 at three sites in Chicago : Illinois Institute of Technology Cafeteria, Rush-Presbyterian St. Lukes Medical Center Cafeteria and a downtown office building. From this study, the mean concentrations of $NO_2$ and $NH_3$ were not significantly different between the smoking and non-smoking locations at any sampling site ; however, there was a statistical difference for TPM between the smoking and non-smoking locations. Activity factor was useful for describing the contribution from indoor source. The linear regression analysis was reasonable method for discriminating the individual contribution of source to determine the emission factor. The TPM emission factor determined from this technique was in good agreement with value from the literature.

• Journal of Environmental Health Sciences
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• v.34 no.3
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• pp.183-187
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• 2008

Indoor air quality can be affected by indoor sources, ventilation, decay, and outdoor levels. Various indoor and out-door combustion sources produce nitrogen dioxide ($NO_2$), which is a by-product of high temperature fossil fuel combustion. Especially, the presence of gas ranges and smoking have been identified as major factors contributing to indoor $NO_2$ exposures. In this study, we compared an industrial complex area with a country area by assessing the personal exposure to $NO_2$with measurements of indoor and outdoor $NO_2$ levels in residences and by house characteristics and questionnaire. Personal exposure concentrations were significantly correlated with indoor $NO_2$ concentrations of residences in both the industrial complex area and the country area with correlation coefficients of 0.561 and 0.664, respectively, compared to outdoors. Multiple regression analysis, indicated that indoor $NO_2$ levels in residences were only affected by outdoor levels (p = 0.000) in spite of higher indoor sources such as smoking. Therefore, it is suggested that outdoor air quality as well as indoor air quality should be considered in the reduction of the personal exposure to air pollutants.

• Journal of Environmental Health Sciences
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• v.40 no.1
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• pp.10-16
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• 2014

Objectives: This pilot study assessed secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure in smoking and non-smoking nightclubs in Seoul, Korea by measuring the concentration of particulate matter smaller than $2.5{\mu}m$ ($PM_{2.5}$). Methods: This comparative study was conducted in three nightclubs in Seoul. While one non-smoking nightclub was measured on weekdays and weekends, different smoking nightclubs were measured on weekdays and weekends. The concentration of $PM_{2.5}$ was observed using a real-time monitor over an average of three hours. The number of people in the clubs was also estimated. Settled dust was collected in a smoking and a non-smoking nightclub and analyzed for NNK concentration. Results: The $PM_{2.5}$ concentration in the smoking nightclubs was higher than those found in the non-smoking nightclub by 26 times on weekdays and three times on weekends. Indoor $PM_{2.5}$ concentration was correlated with the number of people in the smoking nightclubs. Relatively high $PM_{2.5}$ concentration was observed in the non-smoking nightclub on weekends. NNK concentration in the smoking nightclub was 7 times higer than in the non-smoking nightclub. Conclusion: Smoking in nightclubs caused high $PM_{2.5}$ concentration. Although the non-smoking nightclub had a lower $PM_{2.5}$ concentration, $PM_{2.5}$ concentration on weekends was higher due to the smoking room. Complete prohibition of smoking in nightclubs can protect patrons from secondhand smoke exposure.

• Environmental Analysis Health and Toxicology
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• v.21 no.1 s.52
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• pp.57-69
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• 2006

Lately human exposure to fine particles smaller than $2.5{\mu}m$ in aerodynamic diameter ($PM_{2.5}$) has become a great concern in Korea due to their possible cause of elevated mortality, lung function decrements, and more frequent hospital admissions for asthma. This study was conducted to investigate seasonal variations of human exposure to residential $PM_{2.5}$ and particle-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Ten homes in Chuncheon, Korea were visited for continuous 72 hour sampling of $PM_{2.5}$ in the living rooms using a MiniVol Portable Sampler from December 22, 2002 to November 3, 2003. During the same period, outdoor $PM_{2.5}$ samples were collected on the top of the Natural Sciences Building of Kangwon National University which is located in the middle of the ten households. Samples were analyzed for $PM_{2.5}$ mass concentrations and six selected PAHs. In two smoking homes, the highest $PM_{2.5}$ concentrations were measured ranging from 51.1 to 69.7 {\mu}g/m^3$ on average in all seasons, indicating smoking is a very important contributor to the elevation of indoor particle concentrations. Seasonal comparison showed that indoor particle concentrations were higher than outdoor ones except winter. Total PAH concentrations in smoking homes were highest in winter among the seasons primarily due to low ventilation rate, followed by the outdoor site and nonsmoking homes. BaP toxic equivalents (TEQs) were calculated for five PAHs. The TEQ for smoking homes in winter was highest followed by the outdoor site in winter. It is concluded that smoking and ventilation rate are two important contributors to the elevation of indoor $PM_{2.5}$ and PAH concentrations.

• Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention
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• v.14 no.11
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• pp.6845-6850
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• 2013

Background: This study was performed to gather data on second-hand smoke (SHS) concentrations in a range of public venues following the implementation of partial Smoke-Free Legislation in Malaysia in 2004. Materials and Methods: $PM_{2.5}$ was measured as a marker of SHS levels in a total of 61 restaurants, entertainment centres, internet caf$\acute{e}$s and pubs in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Results: Under the current smoke-free laws smoking was prohibited in 42 of the 61 premises. Active smoking was observed in nearly one-third (n=12) of these. For premises where smoking was prohibited and no active smoking observed, the mean (standard deviation) indoor $PM_{2.5}$ concentration was 33.4 (23.8) ${\mu}g/m^3$ compared to 187.1 (135.1) ${\mu}g/m^3$ in premises where smoking was observed The highest mean $PM_{2.5}$ was observed in pubs [361.5 (199.3) ${\mu}g/m^3$]. Conclusions: This study provides evidence of high levels of SHS across a range of hospitality venues, including about one-third of those where smoking is prohibited, despite 8 years of smoke-free legislation. Compliance with the legislation appeared to be particularly poor in entertainment centres and internet caf$\acute{e}$s. Workers and non-smoking patrons continue to be exposed to high concentrations of SHS within the hospitality industry in Malaysia and there is an urgent need for increased enforcement of existing legislation and consideration of more comprehensive laws to protect health.