• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.38 no.3
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• pp.173-179
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• 2014

Background: Ginsenosides are the major components responsible for the biochemical and pharmacological actions of ginseng, and have been shown to have various biological activities. In this study, we investigated the antiviral activities of seven ginsenosides [protopanaxatriol (PT) type: Re, Rf, and Rg2; protopanaxadiol (PD) type: Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd)] against coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3), enterovirus 71 (EV71), and human rhinovirus 3 (HRV3). Methods: Assays of antiviral activity and cytotoxicity were evaluated by the sulforhodamine B method using the cytopathic effect (CPE) reduction assay. Results: The antiviral assays demonstrated that, of the seven ginsenosides, the PT-type ginsenosides (Re, Rf, and Rg2) possess significant antiviral activities against CVB3 and HRV3 at a concentration of $100{\mu}g/mL$. Among the PT-type ginsenosides, only ginsenoside Rg2 showed significant anti-EV71 activity with no cytotoxicity to cells at $100{\mu}g/mL$. The PD-type ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd), by contrast, did not show any significant antiviral activity against CVB3, EV71, and HRV3, and exhibited cytotoxic effects to virus-infected cells. Notably, the antiviral efficacies of PT-type ginsenosides were comparable to those of ribavirin, a commonly used antiviral drug. Conclusion: Collectively, our findings suggest that the ginsenosides Re, Rf, and Rg2 have the potential to be effective in the treatment of CVB3, EV71, and HRV3 infection.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.41 no.4
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• pp.540-547
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• 2017

Background: In general, after Panax ginseng is administered orally, intestinal microbes play a crucial role in its degradation and metabolization process. Studies on the metabolism of P. ginseng by microflora are important for obtaining a better understanding of their biological effects. Methods: In vitro biotransformation of P. ginseng extract by rat intestinal microflora was investigated at $37^{\circ}C$ for 24 h, and the simultaneous determination of the metabolites and metabolic profile of P. ginseng saponins by rat intestinal microflora was achieved using LC-MS/MS. Results: A total of seven ginsenosides were detected in the P. ginseng extract, including ginsenosides Rg1, Re, Rf, Rb1, Rc, Rb2, and Rd. In the transformed P. ginseng samples, considerable amounts of deglycosylated metabolite compound K and Rh1 were detected. In addition, minimal amounts of deglycosylated metabolites (ginsenosides Rg2, F1, F2, Rg3, and protopanaxatriol-type ginsenosides) and untransformed ginsenosides Re, Rg1, and Rd were detected at 24 h. The results indicated that the primary metabolites are compound K and Rh1, and the protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides were more easily metabolized than protopanaxatriol-type ginsenosides. Conclusion: This is the first report of the identification and quantification of the metabolism and metabolic profile of P. ginseng extract in rat intestinal microflora using LC-MS/MS. The current study provided new insights for studying the metabolism and active metabolites of P. ginseng.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition
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• v.35 no.10
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• pp.1444-1448
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• 2006

This study was investigated for quality characteristics of Baechukimchi with ginseng during fermentation. For Baechukimchi preparation, original ingredients of Baechukimchi and high contents of ginseng were used. In the initial pH and titratable acidity of each samples, ginseng -added Kimchi showed a little higher value than pH 5.48 and 0.25% acidity of the control Kimchi. Ginseng-added Kimchi showed higher values of total microbes $(1.90\times10^6\sim2.93\times10^6)$ and lactic acid bacteria $(2.21\times10^6\sim2.62\times10^6)$ than the control Kimchi. The control Kimchi was total microbes of $1.59\times10^5$ and lactic acid bacteria of $7.60\times10^4$. According to fermentation periods, ginseng-added Kimchi showed decrease of pH and increase of titratable acidity than the control Kimchi, but it. was not different for the microbes between Kimchi samples. In the taste intensity of sensory evaluation, ginseng-added Kimchi was evaluated higher value than the control Kimchi and kept up texture, properties of initial preparation between samples during fermentation periods. In the crude saponin content, raw ginseng was 5.89% by dry basis and it was decreased to 3.74% after fermentation. And the individual ginsenosides content of Re, $Rg_1$, Rf, $Rg_2,\;Rh_1,\;Rb_1,$, Rc, $Rb_2$, Rd, $Rg_3$, but $Rg_3$ were decreased and $Rh_1$ were increased from 16.6 mg%, and 22.2 mg/% to 59.2 mg%, and 39.4 mg%, respectively.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.24 no.4
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• pp.188-195
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• 2000

Using Ginseng saponins (crude saponin and total saponin) and ginsenoside Rbl Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rhl, and Rh2 in this study, we have examined the effects of the compounds on the induction of differentiation in normal rat mammary epithelial cells and 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced mammary tumor cells in culture. When normal rat mammary organoids were cultured in 100-mm culture plates in the presence or absence of ginseng saponins, there were four different cell colonies after two weeks in culture: cobble stone, spindle, honey comb, and senescence type colonies. Ginseng saponins showed different effects on the development of each colonies. Scrape-loading dye transfer tech-nique was performed to measure the effects of total saponin, Rhl, and Rh2 on intercellular junctional communication. Intercellular communication was not observed at short cultilral time, e.g., four or seven days, but when it cultured it up to two weeks, cell to cell communication was observed in saponin-treated cells. Reconstituted basement membrane, Matrigel, supported the growth and development several different multicellular structures from normal mammary organoids (e.g., ductal, webbed, stellate, and squamous colonies) or DMBA-induced mammary tumor (e.g., alveolar unit, foamy alveolar unit, squamous metaplasia, lobule-ductal, stellate, and webbed colony). In ginseng saponin-treated groups, webbed colonies were more and squamous colonies were less than control group. Moreover, the ductal colonies, marker tructure of well-differentiate mammary epithelial cells, were developed more in saponin-treated group than in control group. In conclusion, ginseng saponins affected on the differentiation of normal rat mammary epithelial cells and DMBA-induced mammary tumor cells in culture.

• Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life
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• v.17 no.3
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• pp.402-408
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• 2007

This study was conducted in order to evaluate the antioxidant activity of extruded ginseng in different extracted fractions. Each of the fractions obtained from extruded ginseng and ginseng (control) were extracted with 80% ethanol, and then the lipophilic components were removed with ether while the hydrophilic components were separated with water-saturated butanol. Each of the 80% ethanol/butanol/water layers were collected and evaporated to acquire samples for tests of saponin content and antioxidant activity. The antioxidant activity of extruded ginseng fractions and ginseng fractions were determined via the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay. Overall, the extruded ginseng samples harbored saponin contents of 2.2 (Rg1), 2.3 (Re), 1.2 (Rc), 1.3 (Rb2), and 2.2 (Rd) times that measured in the ginseng prior to extrusion. Antioxidant capacity was also higher, not only in the 80% ethanol/butanol which harbor a significant quantity of saponin, but also in the water fractions, which harbor relatively low quantities of saponin as compared to the control samples. All three of the fractions extracted from extruded ginseng evidence significantly higher antioxidant capacity than the controls (0.05

• Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life
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• v.17 no.3
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• pp.393-401
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• 2007

This study was performed to investigate the antioxidant activity of Korean ginseng using an ORAC(Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity) assay. Four fractions each (80% ethanol, ethyl acetate, water saturated 1-butanol, and water) were obtained from different ginseng samples (White Ginseng: ; 6 yrs-., 5 yrs-., ; Cork Ginseng: ; 5 yrs-., 4 yrs-.). The saponin content of each fraction was quantified by LC/MS, and the antioxidant capacity of the ginseng was measured by the ORAC assay. The ORAC method, which was recently validated using automatic liquid handling systems, has been adapted for manual handling with the use of a conventional fluorescence microplate reader. Furthermore, the ORAC assay provides a direct measure of hydrophilic chain-breaking antioxidant capacity against peroxy radical, which is the exiting and emission of 2,2'-Azobis (2-methylpropionamidine)-dihychloride (AAPH). As a result of our experiments, ginsenosides Rg1 and Rb1 were the two major saponins found in the ginseng samples, and Rc, Rb2, Re, Rd, Rg3, and Rh1 were detected in a small quantities. For the antioxidant capacities of the fractions (80% ethanol, ethyl acetate, butanol, and water), we found that the organic solvent fraction had similar antioxidant capacities, and were higher than the capacity of the water fraction. When determining the similarities in each fraction, only the ethyl acetate fraction showed similarity compared to other fractions (p>0.05). The antioxidant capacity of ginseng may come from phenolic compounds and some nonpolar saponins. However, based on the results of this study, we hypothesize that some acidic polysaccharides and other biological components may contribute to its antioxidant capacity. Additional research is required to determine other possible biological response modifiers that contribute to the antioxidant capacity of ginseng.

• Proceedings of the Ginseng society Conference
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• 1984.09a
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• pp.169-183
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• 1984

인삼의 주된 사포닌으로서 Rg,과 Rb,을 흰쥐에 투여하였을 경우에 이들 물질이 흰쥐의 장기에 흡수 또는 분포되는 상태와 배설에 대하여 연구하였다. 진세노사이드 $Rg_{1}$은 경구 투여량의 약 $1.9{\%}$가 소화관의 상부에서 흡수되었으며, 투여한지 30분 후에 최고 혈중 농도에 이르렀고 조직에서는 1.5시간 걸렸다. 그러나 뇌에서는 확인되지 않았으며 뇨와 당즙에는 2 : 5의 비로 배설되었다. $Rb_{1}$을 100mg/kg 경구투여한 결과, 소화관에서는 거의 흡수가 되지 않았으며, 한편 정맥주사(5mg/kg)의 경우는 혈중 $Rb_{1}$의 농도가 지수적으로 감소하였으며, B-phase의 반감기는 14.5시간이었다. 정맥주사후 혈청과 조직에 장시간 잔존은 활성을 나탄내는 혈청단백과의 결합과 관련이 있는 것으로 사료되며 시간에 따라 뇨로 배설되나 담즙에서는 확인되지 않았다. $Rg_{1}$과 $Rb_{1}$을 경구투여한 후 TLC와 $^{13}C$-NMR을 이용하여 위와 대장에서의 분해 상태를 연구한 결과 위에서 $Rg_{1}$의 일부가 분해, 6종류의 분해 산물이 r-everse phase TLC상에서 관찰되었고 이들 분해 산물은 약산성 (0.1N HCl, $37^{\circ}C$) 조건하에서 $Rg_{1}$의 가수분해산물과 동일하였다. 한편, $Rb_{1}$ 경구투여후 위장에서 얻은 시료중에서 미확인 분해산물이 관찰되었으며, 이 분해산물은 약산성 조건하에서 $Rb_{1}$의 가수분해산물과는 상이하다는 사실을 확인하였다. 대장에서, $Rg_{1}$은 미생물 tetracycline-susceptible bacteria와 tetracycline-resist bacteria에 의해 $Rb_{1}$과 $F_{1}$으로 분해되었으며, $Rb_{1}$은 장내의 효소와 tetracycline-resistantant bacteria에 의해 Rd와 2 종류의 미확인 물질로 분해되었다.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.31 no.3
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• pp.159-174
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• 2007

Pharmacology of Korean Red ginseng gives us unique possibility to develop new class of antiepileptic drugs today and to improve one's biological activity. The chemical structures of ginsenosides (GS) have some principal differences from well-known antiepileptic new generation drugs. The antiepileptic effect of GS was also demonstrated in all models of epilepsy in rats (young and adult), which have studied, in all models of epilepsy including status epilepticus (SE), induced by lithium - pilocarpine. In our experiments in rats new evidences on protective effects were exerted as a result of premedication by GS. Pre-treatment of several GS could induce decrease of the seizures severity and brain structural damage (by MRI), neuronal degeneration in hippocampus. Wave nature of severity of motor seizures during convulsive SE was observed during lithium-pilocarpine model of SE in rats (the first increase of seizures was 30 min after the beginning of SE and the second - 90 min after. The efficacy of treatment on SE by ginsenoside as expected was observed after no less 3 weeks by daily GS i.p. administration. It is blocked SE or significantly decrease the severity of seizures during SE. The implication of presented data is that combination of ginsenosides from Korean Red ginseng and ginseng cell culture Dan25 that could be applied for prevention of epileptical status development. However, a development of optimal ratio of different ginsenosides $(Rb_1$ Rc, Rg, Rf,) should consummate in the new antiepileptic drug development.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.39 no.2
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• pp.105-115
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• 2015

Background: Alcoholic steatosis is the earliest and most common liver disease, and may precede the onset of more severe forms of liver injury. Methods: The effect of Korean Red Ginseng extract (RGE) was tested in two murine models of ethanol (EtOH)-feeding and EtOH-treated hepatocytes. Results: Blood biochemistry analysis demonstrated that RGE treatment improved liver function. Histopathology and measurement of hepatic triglyceride content verified the ability of RGE to inhibit fat accumulation. Consistent with this, RGE administration downregulated hepatic lipogenic gene induction and restored hepatic lipolytic gene repression by EtOH. The role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of alcoholic liver diseases is well established. Treatment with RGE attenuated EtOH-induced cytochrome P450 2E1, 4-hydroxynonenal, and nitrotyrosine levels. Alcohol consumption also decreased phosphorylation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, which was restored by RGE. Moreover, RGE markedly inhibited fat accumulation in EtOH-treated hepatocytes, which correlated with a decrease in sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 and a commensurate increase in sirtuin 1 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-a expression. Interestingly, the ginsenosides Rb2 and Rd, but not Rb1, significantly inhibited fat accumulation in hepatocytes. Conclusion: These results demonstrate that RGE and its ginsenoside components inhibit alcoholic steatosis and liver injury by adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase/sirtuin 1 activation both in vivo and in vitro, suggesting that RGE may have a potential to treat alcoholic liver disease.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.36 no.2
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• pp.198-204
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• 2012

An light-emitting diode (LED)-based light source was used as a monochromatic light source to determine the responses of raw ginseng roots (Panax ginseng Meyer) to specific emission spectra with respect to the production of ginsenosides. The ginsenoside content in the ginseng roots changed in response to the LED light treatments at $25^{\circ}C$ relative to the levels in the control roots that were treated in the dark or at $4^{\circ}C$ for 7 d. Ginseng roots were exposed to LEDs with four different peak emission wavelengths, 380, 450, 470, and 660 nm, in closed compartments. Compared with the control $4^{\circ}C$-treated roots, roots that were treated with 450 and 470 nm light showed a significantly increased production of ginsenosides (p<0.05), with increases of 64.9% and 74.1%, respectively. The contents of the ginsenosides $Rb_2$, Rc, and $Rg_1$ were significantly higher (p<0.05) in the 450 and 470 nm-treated root samples. The ratio of protopanaxadiol ginsenosides ($Rb_1$, $Rb_2$, Rc, and Rd) to protopanaxatriol ginsenosides ($Rb_1$, $Rb_2$, Re, and Rf) was significantly higher (p<0.05) in the 450 and 470 nm-treated root samples than in the control $4^{\circ}C$-treated roots. This is the first report that demonstrates the increase and conversion of ginsenosides in raw ginseng roots in response to exposure to LED light.