• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.40 no.2
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• pp.196-202
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• 2016

Background: Ginsenoside Rd (GSRd), a main component of the root of Panax ginseng, exhibits anti-inflammation functions and decreases infarct size in many injuries and ischemia diseases such as focal cerebral ischemia. M1 Macrophages are regarded as one of the key inflammatory cells having functions for disease progression. Methods: To investigate the effect of GSRd on renal ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) and macrophage functional status, and their regulatory role on mouse polarized macrophages in vitro, GSRd (10-100 mg/kg) and vehicle were applied to mice 30 min before renal IRI modeling. Renal functions were reflected by blood serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen level and histopathological examination. M1 polarized macrophages infiltration was identified by flow cytometry analysis and immunofluorescence staining with $CD11b^+$, $iNOS^+$/interleukin-12/tumor necrosis factor-${\alpha}$ labeling. For the in vitro study, GSRd ($10-100{\mu}g/mL$) and vehicle were added in the culture medium of M1 macrophages to assess their regulatory function on polarization phenotype. Results: In vivo data showed a protective role of GSRd at 50 mg/kg on Day 3. Serum level of serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen significantly dropped compared with other groups. Reduced renal tissue damage and M1 macrophage infiltration showed on hematoxylin-eosin staining and flow cytometry and immunofluorescence staining confirmed this improvement. With GSRd administration, in vitro cultured M1 macrophages secreted less inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-12 and tumor necrosis factor-${\alpha}$. Furthermore, macrophage polarization-related pancake-like morphology gradually changed along with increasing concentration of GSRd in the medium. Conclusion: These findings demonstrate that GSRd possess a protective function against renal ischemia/reperfusion injury via downregulating M1 macrophage polarization.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.40 no.3
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• pp.278-284
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• 2016

Background: The ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) is the most abundant compound in the root of Panax ginseng. Recent studies have shown that Rb1 has a neuroprotective effect. However, the mechanisms underlying this effect are still unknown. Methods: We used stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture, combined with quantitative mass spectrometry, to explore a potential protective mechanism of Rb1 in ${\beta}$-amyloid-treated neuronal cells. Results: A total of 1,231 proteins were commonly identified from three replicate experiments. Among these, 40 proteins were significantly changed in response to Rb1 pretreatment in ${\beta}$-amyloid-treated neuronal cells. Analysis of the functional enrichments and protein interactions of altered proteins revealed that actin cytoskeleton proteins might be linked to the regulatory mechanisms of Rb1. The CAP1, CAPZB, TOMM40, and DSTN proteins showed potential as molecular target proteins for the functional contribution of Rb1 in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Conclusion: Our proteomic data may provide new insights into the protective mechanisms of Rb1 in AD.

• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.15 no.4
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• pp.261-265
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• 2007

A climatic feature, growth condition and incidence phase of disease and pest in Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) were surveyed, both the conventional cultivation and culture in the forest located in Jinan. The results were as follows. The forest field was lower $1^{\circ}C$ in the air temperature, lower $1.9^{\circ}C$ in the soil temperature and 11.8% lower in the soil temperature compared with the conventional field. The wind velocity of the forest field was three times slower, but the dew condensation time was 3.3 hours longer than the conventional field. Particularly, the amounts of solar radiation in the forest was remarkably lower, while the rainfall was little lower with no significance. The incidence of disease and pest in the forest field was severe compared with that of the conventional field. Among them, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Cylindrocarpon destructans, and Alternaria panax was severe in the forest field while, Botrytis cinerea was severe in the conventional field. The growth condition of forest field in Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer was 50% worse in general and the root weight was 87.2% less than the 3-year-old ginseng in the conventional field.

• Korean Journal of Plant Resources
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• v.26 no.1
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• pp.84-89
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• 2013

We established that regenerated plants of Panax ginseng were directly transplanted into the soil without the acclimatization process. When regenerated plants were treated at the concentration of $0.4mg\;l^{-1}$ for 9 hr before transplantation into the soil, our results showed that the survival rate of them was the highest. The optimal size of the root was above 4 cm in length and 0.4 g by weight before transplantation into the soil. The highest survival rate increased to 59.6%. After 4 years of cultivation in the fields, our results showed that there were no significant morphological differences between regenerated plants and wild-type ginseng. Also, we obtained healthy seeds from regenerated plants. This study provides the basis for a relatively rapid multiplication of selected genotypes and will allow a much more rapid evaluation of the germplasm of the unexplored and unstudied Korean ginseng.

• Korean Journal of Pharmacognosy
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• v.5 no.2
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• pp.111-124
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• 1974

The radioactive compound sodium $acetate-U-C^{14}\;(C^{14}-acetate)$ was administered to two- and four-year-old July and September American ginseng (Araliaceae, Panax quinquefolium L.) plants and cuttings. The $C^{14}-acetate$ uptake was approximately 99%. The autoradiochromatograms suggest that the saponins isolated by preparative thin-layer chromatography contained impurities, especially those isolated from the leaf and stem extracts. The root and fruit methanol extracts yielded relatively pure saponins. The large amounts of panaquilin B and its proximity to panaquilin C on preparative thin-layer plates resulted in some admixing. The average concentration (% plant dry weight) of semi-purified saponins were high in the leaves (13.8%), as compared to fruits (9.8%), stems (7.9%) and roots (6.3%). The average percentage of $C^{14}-acetate$ incorporation into panaquilins was 4.8%. The average percentage of $C^{14}-acetate$ incorporation into panaquilins B and C was higher (1.40% and 1.13%, respectively) than that into panaquilins C, (d), G-1 and G-2 (0.75%, 0.65%, 0.13% and 0.53%, respectively). Panaquilin synthesis may be depending upon the part, collection period and age of the plant. The average percentage of $C^{14}-acetate$ incorporation into panaquilin B is high in roots (0.58%) and stems (0.48%); that into panaquilins C and (d) high in leaves (0.40% and 0.45%, respectively); and that into panaquilin E high in roots and leaves (0.55% and 0.50%, respectively). Panaquilin G-2 was synthesized in all parts of plants. The panaquilins appear to be biosynthesized more actively in July than September (exception-panaquilin G-1). Panaquilins B, C and G-1 may be biosynthesized more actively in four-year-old plants and panaquilins (d) and E more actively in two-year-old plants. The results from expectance with cuttings suggest that the panaquilins are synthesized de novo in the above-ground parts of ginseng plants, and that panaquilin G-1 may be synthesized de novo in the leaf. It is known from the tissue culture studies that panaquilins are produced by leaf, stem and root callus tissues and cailus-root cultures of American and Korean ginseng plants. Panaquilins may actively be synthesized de novo in most any cell or organ of the ginseng plants. It was verified that $C^{14}-acetate$ was incorporated into the panaxadiol portions of the panaquilins of two-year-old plants (sp. act. 0.56 mmcCi/mg) and four-year-old plants $(sp.\;act.\;0.54\;m{\mu}Ci/mg)$.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.24 no.2
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• pp.53-57
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• 2000

Chlamydospores were isolated from hyphae of Cylindrocanon destmctans by homogenization and/or ultrasonic treatment. Rate of the isolated chlamydospores by the homogenization with glass tissue grinder were 9.8% of all total chlamydospores formed in the culture of C. destructans. The length of mycelial fragments after the homogenization was about 400㎛ They were, however, formed in clusters of the chlamydospores and the mycelia The rate of the isolated chlamydospores from additional ultrasonic treatment after the homogenization of the mycelia were 74.3%. The length of mycelial fragments with the ultrasonic treatment was about 20 fm and chlamydospores seemed to be isolated from the mycelial mats and dispersed evenly in the culture. The numbers of chlamydospore in a catena were 1 to 8 cells after the homogenization on potato dextrose agar (PDA). Meanwhile the numbers of them after added ultrasonic treatment were 1 to 4 cells. Germination percentages of the isolated chlamydospores from the ultrasonic treatment were 46.8% after incubation of 2 days on PDA at 20。C and 60.7% after incubation of 13 days at 5。C, respectively. Germination rate of chlamydospores to the total chlamydospores produced by the ultrasonic treatment was 55.8%. However, it was increased to 74% when it was measured in the germinated catenae to the total catenae.

• The Korean Journal of Mycology
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• v.22 no.1
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• pp.50-61
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• 1994

From soil samples, 380 antagonistic microorgnisms were isolated. Among the isolates, 42 strains had mycelia growing inhibition ability against Fusariun solani, ginseng root rot causing pathogen. Isolates CHA 1 and S-PFHR 6 were proposed as antagonists for this study and they were identified as Promicromonospora sp. and Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes respectively. As an antagonism against hyphae of F. solani in dual culture test, CHA 1 and S-PFHR 6 inhibited linear growing, caused abnormal branching, and the membrane projection which formed by cell wall destruction. The secondary metabolites contained in the culture filtrates which prepared from PD broth and Nutrient broth inhibited the spore germination to 14.3%. The culture filtrate of S-PFHR 6 which prepared by a little amount of soil extract addition to nutrient rich medium had more strongly. inhibited the spore germination and spore germination decreased to less than 4.0% in it. The soil used in this study had fungistasis and the germination rate of macroconidia and chlamydospore of F.solani was 19.4% and 17.7% respectively. The steam sterilized soil lost fungistasis and germination rate of conidia increased to more than 97.9%. The soils amended with the propagule of CHA 1 and S-PFHR 6 increased fungistasis and the germination rate of macroconidia decreased to 14.7% and 11.7% respectively in each treatments. But the soil ammended with glucose and asparagine annulled fungistatic ability and the germination rate of macroconidia increased to more than 48.0%. As an antagonistic activity of the secondary metabolites of two antagonistic isolates in soil, the germination rate of macroconidia of F. solani was 9.3% in the soil amended with the culture filtrate of CHA 1 but the culture filtrate of S-PFHR 6 had no such activity. In the soil which treated with antagonist propagule or culture filtrate, the chlamydospore germination rate was lower than that in natural soil. The addition of glucose and asparagine to antagonist propagule treated soil did not enhanced the chlamydospore germination.

• Proceedings of the Ginseng society Conference
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• 1978.09a
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• pp.149-157
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• 1978

Ginseng is the English common name for the species in the genus Panax. This article gives a broad botanical review including the morphological characteristics, ecological amplitude, and the ethnobotanical aspect of the genus Panax. The species of Panax are adapted for life in rich loose soil of partially shaded forest floor with the deciduous trees such as linden, oak, maple, ash, alder, birch, beech, hickory, etc. forming the canopy. Like their associated trees, all ginsengs are deciduous. They require annual climatic changes, plenty of water in summer, and a period of dormancy in winter. The plant body of ginseng consists of an underground rhizome and an aerial shoot. The rhizome has a terminal bud, prominent leafscars and a fleshy root in some species. It is perennial. The aerial shoot is herbaceous and annual. It consists of a single slender stem with a whorl of digitately compound leaves and a terminal umbel bearing fleshy red fruits after flowering. The yearly cycle of death and renascence of the aerial shoot is a natural phenomenon in ginseng. The species of Panax occur in eastern North America and eastern Asia, including the eastern portion of the Himalayan region. Such a bicentric generic distributional pattern indicates a close floristic relationship of the eastern sides of two great continental masses in the northern hemisphere. It is well documented that genera with this type of disjunct distribution are of great antiquity. Many of them have fossil remains in Tertiary deposits. In this respect, the species of Panax may be regarded as living fossils. The distribution of the species, and the center of morphological diversification are explained with maps and other illustrations. Chemical constituents confirm the conclusion derived from morphological characters that eastern Asia is the center of species concentration of Panax. In eastern North America two species occur between longitude $70^{\circ}-97^{\circ}$ Wand latitude $34^{\circ}-47^{\circ}$ N. In eastern Asia the range of the genus extends from longitude $85^{\circ}$ E in Nepal to $140^{\circ}$ E in Japan, and from latitude $22^{\circ}$ N in the hills of Tonkin of North Vietnam to $48^{\circ}$ N in eastern Siberia. The species in eastern North America all have fleshy roots, and many of the species in eastern Asia have creeping stolons with enlarged nodes or stout horizontal rhizomes as storage organs in place of fleshy roots. People living in close harmony with nature in the homeland of various species of Panax have used the stout rhizomes or the fleshy roots of different wild forms of ginseng for medicine since time immemorial. Those who live in the center morphological diversity are specific both in the application of names for the identification of species in their communication and in the use of different roots as remedies to relieve pain, to cure diseases, or to correct physiological disorders. Now, natural resources of wild plants with medicinal virtue are extremely limited. In order to meet the market demand, three species have been intensively cultivated in limited areas. These species are American ginseng (P. quinquefolius) in northeastern United States, ginseng (P. ginseng) in northeastern Asia, particularly in Korea, and Sanchi (P. wangianus) in southwestern China, especially in Yunnan. At present hybridization and selection for better quality, higher yield, and more effective chemical contents have not received due attention in ginseng culture. Proper steps in this direction should be taken immediately, so that our generation may create a richer legacy to hand down to the future. Meanwhile, all wild plants of all species in all lands should be declared as endangered taxa, and they should be protected from further uprooting so that a. fuller gene pool may be conserved for the. genus Panax.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.23 no.3 s.55
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• pp.123-129
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• 1999

Under the light condition of 25,000 Lux (12 hrs dark and light cycle) with scrapping treatment of aerial mycelia of Cylindrocarpon destructans on potato dextrose agar (PDA), V-8 juice agar, and ginseng extract agar, production of the macroconidia was increased to $3.7\~8.1$ fold over them produced in the dark. They were also produced $7.7\~18.0$ times more in the liquid cultures under the light condition than under the dark as well. PDA and V-8 juice agar among the tested were the best for the macroconidium production. On PDA, 1,585 $macroconidia/mm^2$ were produced under the light of 25,000 Lux with scrapping treatment of aerial mycelia of C. destructans, which is 3.2 and 1.4 times more than those produced under 3,000 and 10,000 Lux, respectively. Meanwhile, $20\~99$ macroconidia/$mm^2$ were produced by the non-scrapping under the light condition between 3,000 Lux and 25,000 Lux. The macroconidia were, however, lysed at $6\~7$ days after being incubated under the above range of the light. They were consisted of $1\~3$ cells in a macroconidium while $69.4\~100\%$ of them were the two-celled and the number did not seem to be affected by either the scrapping or the light. Production of chlamydospore converted from mycelia of C. destructans seemed to be promoted by the light and the scrapping as well. The 1,285 chlamydospres/$mm^2$ were produced with the light (25,000 Lux), which is 2.8 and 1.2 times more than those with 3,000 and 10,000 Lux, respectively. Scrapping the aerial mycelia of the cultures increased the chlamydospore formation to 1.9, 2.5 and 1.4 times more than the non-scrapping under the light intensity of 3,000 Lux, 10,000 Lux, and 25,000 Lux, respectively. On PDA, 1 to 8 chlamydospore(s) per catena were formed by all treatments tested and $34.2\~58.9\%$ of them was a single chlamydospore, However, the numbers was affected by neither the light ($3,000\~25,000$ Lux) nor the scrapping the aerial mycelia.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.40 no.4
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• pp.315-324
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• 2016

Background: Biocontrol agents are regarded as promising and environmental friendly approaches as agrochemicals for phytodiseases that cause serious environmental and health problems. Trichoderma species have been widely used in suppression of soil-borne pathogens. In this study, an endophytic fungus, Trichoderma gamsii YIM PH30019, from healthy Panax notoginseng root was investigated for its biocontrol potential. Methods: In vitro detached healthy roots, and pot and field experiments were used to investigate the pathogenicity and biocontrol efficacy of T. gamsii YIM PH30019 to the host plant. The antagonistic mechanisms against test phytopathogens were analyzed using dual culture, scanning electron microscopy, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Tolerance to chemical fertilizers was also tested in a series of concentrations. Results: The results indicated that T. gamsii YIM PH30019 was nonpathogenic to the host, presented appreciable biocontrol efficacy, and could tolerate chemical fertilizer concentrations of up to 20%. T. gamsii YIM PH30019 displayed antagonistic activities against the pathogenic fungi of P. notoginseng via production of VOCs. On the basis of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, VOCs were identified as dimethyl disulfide, dibenzofuran, methanethiol, ketones, etc., which are effective ingredients for antagonistic activity. T. gamsii YIM PH30019 was able to improve the seedlings' emergence and protect P. notoginseng plants from soil-borne disease in the continuous cropping field tests. Conclusion: The results suggest that the endophytic fungus T. gamsii YIM PH30019 may have a good potential as a biological control agent against notoginseng phytodiseases and can provide a clue to further illuminate the interactions between Trichoderma and phytopathogens.