원각사(圓覺寺)13층탑(層塔)에 대한 근대적 인식과 오해 (The Modern Understanding and Misunderstanding about the Thirteen-story Stone Pagoda of Wongaksa Temple)
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- 미술자료
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- 제100권
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- pp.50-80
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- 2021
본고는 원각사탑에 대한 지난 백 년간의 근대 학설사를 층수에 초점을 맞추어 비판적으로 성찰하였다. 먼저 제II장에서는 근대 개항기에 조선을 여행한 서양인들이 종래 한성의 '비미(非美)'내지는 흉물로 간주되던 원각사탑을 한성의 '기관(奇觀)'내지 '위관(偉觀)'으로 재발견하는 역동적인 과정을 추적하였다. 이들은 불탑에 관한 예비지식이 거의 없는 서양 출신이었기 때문에, 역설적으로 원각사탑에 대하여 객관적인 견문기를 남길 수 있었는바, 그들이 접촉한 조선 지식인들을 통하여 대체로 13층설을 받아들였다. 이어서 제III장에서는 대한제국 선포 이후 일인 관변학자들이 원각사탑을 본격적으로 학술 조사하고, 일제식민기 동안 조선총독부가 원각사탑을 문화재로서 관리하는 과정 및 그 문제점을 언급하였다. 특히 지난 100여 년 동안 원각사탑 층수 문제에 관하여 가장 큰 영향력을 행사한 세키노 타다시(關野 貞)의 학설이 10층설에서 13층설로, 다시 다층설로 변하는 문제를 집중 조명하였다. 마지막으로 제IV장에서는 해방 이후부터 1962년까지 원각사탑에 대한 인식이 다층설에서 10층설로 바뀐 경과를 정리하되, 선행하는 일제식민기 조선 지식인들의 인식이 13층설 일변도였음을 특기해두었다. 다만 1962년 이후 지금까지 원각사탑에 관련하여 중요한 연구성과가 적지않이 발표되었지만, 층수에 관한 한 대부분 1962년에 확정된 10층설을 전제로 하였기 때문에, 본고에서는 따로 정리하지 않았다. 학설사 검토의 결과, 원각사탑이 13층탑으로서 건립되었다는 근거가 명백함에도 불구하고, 일제시기는 물론 해방 이후 지금까지 백 년이 넘도록 13층설은 단 한 번도 공인받지 못하였으며, 학계에서 층수 문제가 본격적으로 다루어지지도 않았음을 확인할 수 있었다. 원각사탑과 경천사탑이 10층탑이라는 현재의 통설은, 백 년 전에 세키노 타다시(關野 貞)가 최초로 주창하였다. 세키노는 원각사에 남아있는 「원각사비」가 글자를 거의 판독할 수 없을 정도로 마멸이 심하였기 때문에 원각사탑의 현상만 건축학의 관점에서 고찰하고 10층탑이라고 주장하였다. 공교롭게도 그 직후에 발견된 『속동문선』에 실린 「원각사비」에서 '탑 13층을 세웠다.'라는 구절이 확인되었다. 또한 15세기 후반 왕명으로 『동국여지승람』을 편찬한 편찬자들도 원각사탑의 모범인 경천사탑 또한 '13층탑'임을 분명히 인식하고 있었다. 특히 원각사탑 건립 직후 왕명으로 건립된 「원각사비」는 세키노의 10층설이 전제에 오류가 있음을 명백히 보여준다. 세키노는, '3층의 기단 위에 탑신 10층이 올려져 있어서, 세상 사람들이 13층탑이라고 불렀다.'라고 하였는데, 「원각사비」는 세조가 처음부터 13층탑으로서 원각사탑을 건립하였음을 생생하게 증언한다. 다만 이례적이게도 13층탑을 3층의 기단 위에 탑신 10층을 올린 형태로 조성하였을 따름이다. 그렇다면 세조는 왜 13층탑을 세웠으며, 왜 그것을 3층의 기단 위에 탑신 10층이라는 이례적인 형태로 구현하였는가? 세조가 원각사13층탑을 건립한 의도를 온전히 이해하려면, 먼저 원각사탑의 정체를 파악해야 하는바, 그 첫 단추는 원래의 명칭을 회복하는 데 있다. 필자는 전제의 오류 위에 구축된 세키노의 10층설-나아가 절충적인 다층설-은 이제 폐기하고, 「원각사비」에서 말하는 13층설을 복원할 것을 촉구한다.
수도의 다수확을 위하여 근래 다비재배의 경향이 높아가고 있는 반면에 등숙률의 저하가 증수저해요인으로 크게 문제되고 있다. 특히 최근 육성된 통일품종은 이점이 더 심각한 바 있어 등숙의 향상책을 모색하고저 1970년부터 1972년까지 3개년간에 걸쳐 수원 작물시험장포장과 인공기상실에서 주로 진흥과 통일을 공시하여 증숙에 관한 일련의 실험을 시행한 바 그 결과를 요약하면 다음과 같다. 1. 통일의 곡립은 발아등 종래품종에 비하여 세장하고 곡립의 폭 및 두께가 작으며 비중과의 상관관계는 진흥에 있어서는 곡립의 무게, 두께, 폭 및 길이의 순으로 낮으나 통일은 무게, 폭, 두께 및 길이의 순으로 낮았다. 2. 비중별 립수분포에 있어서 종래의 Japonica도는 비중 1.18을 정점으로 대부분 1.12이상에 분포하고 있으나 통일계통에서는 1.12이하의 곡립도 상당수 분포하였고 진흥이 비중 1.06이하에서 정현비율이 급감하고 있으나 통일에 있어서는 비중 1.20에서 0.96까지의 곡립의 정현비율이 별로 차이가 없으므로 1.06을 등숙립의 선별기준으로 삼는 것은 불합리한 것으로 인정된다. 3. 출수후의 등숙속도는 품종간차이가 현저하며 대체로 한랭지 재배품종일수록 느렸으며 통일은 원래 등숙이 빠른 편이나 등숙후기에는 기온의 저하로 인하여 그 속도가 떨어졌다. 4. 지발분얼 또는 약세분얼은 수당영화수도 적을 뿐 아니라 등숙률도 낮은데 통일은 지발분얼이 많고 이들은 저온하에서 출수하여 수전일수가 연장되고 등숙률이 떨어졌다. 5. 통일의 엽신은 짧고 넓으며 엽신전개력은 다비조건에서는 진흥만큼 크고 또 엽의 경사각도는 적어 수광태세가 양호하였다. 통일 엽신의 단위동화능력은 고온하에서는 비교적 크나 저온하에서는 떨어졌다. 6. 통일은 단간이며 하위절간이 짧고 굵어서 도복저항성이 크고 출수전 저장탄수화물이 많았으며 인산, 규산, 석회, 망간 및 마그네슘 등의 체내함유율이 높았다. 7. 통일은 비교적 많은 영화수를 가지고 있고 진흥이 영화수와 등숙률간에 유의적인 역상관이 있음에 비하여 통일은 고온다조하에서는 영화수가 많아도 등숙률은 떨어지지 않고 영화수증가에 비례하여 수량이 많아졌다. 8. 진흥에 비하여 통일의 뿌리는 천근성이며 고온하에서는 그 활력이 컸으나 저온시에는 엽신이 황갈색으로 변하고 그 변색정도에 비례해서 뿌리의 활력도 떨어졌다. 9. 통일은 수광태세가 좋고 동화일호흡균형상 유리한 생산구조를 갖어 진흥보다 이상적인 모형이었다. 10. 수원지방의 수도보통기재배에 있어서 수량생산기간의 일사량은 비교적 풍부한 편이나 8월25일이후에 출수할 때에는 평균기온이 22
본 연구는 대맥의 다수확 재배기술 개선의 기초자료를 얻고져 작물시험장(수원) 맥류포장에서 수원18호를 공시하여 1969년부터 1970년까지 2개년간 시비량, 파종기 및 파종량을 달리 하여 이들 처리가 수량 및 수량구성요소에 미치는 영향과 이들의 형성과정을 추구하였으며 또한 수원18호외 7품종을 공시하여 파종기이동에 따른 품종들의 수량 및 수량 구성요소의 변화를 검토한바 그 결과를 요약하면 다음과 같다. 1. 수원에서 대맥 수원 18호의 출현이수는 파종기 (9월 21일에서 10월 31일까지)에 따라 8~19일정도 소요되었고 조파할수록 빠른 경향을 보였으며 대체로 지중 5cm의 적산온도가 15
우리 나라 하전작물재배(夏田作物栽培)에 있어서 잡초방제(雜草防除) 기술개발(技術開發)의 기초자료(基礎資料)로 공여(供與)하고자 1980, 1981년(년)의 2개년간(個年間)에 서울대학교(大學校) 농과대학(農科大學) 실험농장(實驗農場)에서 첫째, 하전작물(夏田作物) 잡초(雜草)에 관(關)한 시험(試驗)을 표본(標本) Quadrat(종자(格子))의 형태(形態), 크기 및 표본추출회수(標本抽出回數)가 잡초조사(雜草調査) 성적(成績)에 미치는 영향의 구명(究明), 둘째, 밭의 하계잡초발생(夏季雜草發生) 생장(生長) 및 번식력(繁殖力)과 군락(群落) 및 그 특성(特性)에 관(關)한 조사연구(調査硏究), 셋째, 콩품종(品種) 수원(水原)94호(號)를 재료(材料)로 하여 단작(單作)과 맥후작(麥後作) 재배조건하(栽培條件下)에서 각각(各各) 잡초방임구(雜草放任區)와 제초구(除草區)를 설정(設定)하고 콩의 재식거리(裁植距離)를 60
Today most developed countries provide modern medical care for most of the population. The rural area is the more neglected area in the medical and health field. In public health, the philosophy is that medical care for in maintenance of health is a basic right of man; it should not be discriminated against racial, environmental or financial situations. The deficiency of the medical care system, cultural bias, economic development, and ignorance of the residents about health care brought about the shortage of medical personnel and facilities on the rural areas. Moreover, medical students and physicians have been taught less about rural health care than about urban health care. Medical care, therefore, is insufficient in terms of health care personnel/and facilities in rural areas. Under such a situation, there is growing concern about the health problems among the rural population. The findings presented in this report are useful measures of the major health problems and even more important, as a guide to planning for improved medical care systems. It is hoped that findings from this study will be useful to those responsible for improving the delivery of health service for the rural population. Objectives: -to determine the health status of the residents in the rural areas. -to assess the rural population's needs in terms of health and medical care. -to make recommendations concerning improvement in the delivery of health and medical care for the rural population. Procedures: For the sampling design, the ideal would be to sample according to the proportion of the composition age-groups. As the health problems would be different by group, the sample was divided into 10 different age-groups. If the sample were allocated by proportion of composition of each age group, some age groups would be too small to estimate the health problem. The sample size of each age-group population was 100 people/age-groups. Personal interviews were conducted by specially trained medical students. The interviews dealt at length with current health status, medical care problems, utilization of medical services, medical cost paid for medical care and attitudes toward health. In addition, more information was gained from the public health field, including environmental sanitation, maternal and child health, family planning, tuberculosis control, and dental health. The sample Sample size was one fourth of total population: 1,438 The aged 10-14 years showed the largest number of 254 and the aged under one year was the smallest number of 81. Participation in examination Examination sessions usually were held in the morning every Tuesday, Wenesday, and Thursday for 3 hours at each session at the Namchun Health station. In general, the rate of participation in medical examination was low especially in ages between 10-19 years old. The highest rate of participation among are groups was the under one year age-group by 100 percent. The lowest use rate as low as 3% of those in the age-groups 10-19 years who are attending junior and senior high school in Taegu city so the time was not convenient for them to recieve examinations. Among the over 20 years old group, the rate of participation of female was higher than that of males. The results are as follows: A. Publie health problems Population: The number of pre-school age group who required child health was 724, among them infants numbered 96. Number of eligible women aged 15-44 years was 1,279, and women with husband who need maternal health numbered 700. The age-group of 65 years or older was 201 needed more health care and 65 of them had disabilities. (Table 2). Environmental sanitation: Seventy-nine percent of the residents relied upon well water as a primary source of dringking water. Ninety-three percent of the drinking water supply was rated as unfited quality for drinking. More than 90% of latrines were unhygienic, in structure design and sanitation (Table 15). Maternal and child health: Maternal health Average number of pregnancies of eligible women was 4 times. There was almost no pre- and post-natal care. Pregnancy wastage Still births was 33 per 1,000 live births. Spontaneous abortion was 156 per 1,000 live births. Induced abortion was 137 per 1,000 live births. Delivery condition More than 90 percent of deliveries were conducted at home. Attendants at last delivery were laymen by 76% and delivery without attendants was 14%. The rate of non-sterilized scissors as an instrument used to cut the umbilical cord was as high as 54% and of sickles was 14%. The rate of difficult delivery counted for 3%. Maternal death rate estimates about 35 per 10,000 live births. Child health Consultation rate for child health was almost non existant. In general, vaccination rate of children was low; vaccination rates for children aged 0-5 years with BCG and small pox were 34 and 28 percent respectively. The rate of vaccination with DPT and Polio were 23 and 25% respectively but the rate of the complete three injections were as low as 5 and 3% respectively. The number of dead children was 280 per 1,000 living children. Infants death rate was 45 per 1,000 live births (Table 16), Family planning: Approval rate of married women for family planning was as high as 86%. The rate of experiences of contraception in the past was 51%. The current rate of contraception was 37%. Willingness to use contraception in the future was as high as 86% (Table 17). Tuberculosis control: Number of registration patients at the health center currently was 25. The number indicates one eighth of estimate number of tuberculosis in the area. Number of discharged cases in the past accounted for 79 which showed 50% of active cases when discharged time. Rate of complete treatment among reasons of discharge in the past as low as 28%. There needs to be a follow up observation of the discharged cases (Table 18). Dental problems: More than 50% of the total population have at least one or more dental problems. (Table 19) B. Medical care problems Incidence rate: 1. In one month Incidence rate of medical care problems during one month was 19.6 percent. Among these health problems which required rest at home were 11.8 percent. The estimated number of patients in the total population is 1,206. The health problems reported most frequently in interviews during one month are: GI trouble, respiratory disease, neuralgia, skin disease, and communicable disease-in that order, The rate of health problems by age groups was highest in the 1-4 age group and in the 60 years or over age group, the lowest rate was the 10-14 year age group. In general, 0-29 year age group except the 1-4 year age group was low incidence rate. After 30 years old the rate of health problems increases gradually with aging. Eighty-three percent of health problems that occured during one month were solved by primary medical care procedures. Seventeen percent of health problems needed secondary care. Days rested at home because of illness during one month were 0.7 days per interviewee and 8days per patient and it accounts for 2,161 days for the total productive population in the area. (Table 20) 2. In a year The incidence rate of medical care problems during a year was 74.8%, among them health problems which required rest at home was 37 percent. Estimated number of patients in the total population during a year was 4,600. The health problems that occured most frequently among the interviewees during a year were: Cold (30%), GI trouble (18), respiratory disease (11), anemia (10), diarrhea (10), neuralgia (10), parasite disease (9), ENT (7), skin (7), headache (7), trauma (4), communicable disease (3), and circulatory disease (3) -in that order. The rate of health problems by age groups was highest in the infants group, thereafter the rate decreased gradually until the age 15-19 year age group which showed the lowest, and then the rate increased gradually with aging. Eighty-seven percent of health problems during a year were solved by primary medical care. Thirteen percent of them needed secondary medical care procedures. Days rested at home because of illness during a year were 16 days per interviewee and 44 days per patient and it accounted for 57,335 days lost among productive age group in the area (Table 21). Among those given medical examination, the conditions observed most frequently were respiratory disease, GI trouble, parasite disease, neuralgia, skin disease, trauma, tuberculosis, anemia, chronic obstructive lung disease, eye disorders-in that order (Table 22). The main health problems required secondary medical care are as fellows: (previous page). Utilization of medical care (treatment) The rate of treatment by various medical facilities for all health problems during one month was 73 percent. The rate of receiving of medical care of those who have health problems which required rest at home was 52% while the rate of those who have health problems which did not required rest was 61 percent (Table 23). The rate of receiving of medical care for all health problems during a year was 67 percent. The rate of receiving of medical care of those who have health problems which required rest at home was 82 percent while the rate of those who have health problems which did not required rest was as low as 53 percent (Table 24). Types of medical facilitied used were as follows: Hospital and clinics: 32-35% Herb clinics: 9-10% Drugstore: 53-58% Hospitalization Rate of hospitalization was 1.7% and the estimate number of hospitalizations among the total population during a year will be 107 persons (Table 25). Medical cost: Average medical cost per person during one month and a year were 171 and 2,800 won respectively. Average medical cost per patient during one month and a year were 1,109 and 3,740 won respectively. Average cost per household during a year was 15,800 won (Table 26, 27). Solution measures for health and medical care problems in rural area: A. Health problems which could be solved by paramedical workers such as nurses, midwives and aid nurses etc. are as follows: 1. Improvement of environmental sanitation 2. MCH except medical care problems 3. Family planning except surgical intervention 4. Tuberculosis control except diagnosis and prescription 5. Dental care except operational intervention 6. Health education for residents for improvement of utilization of medical facilities and early diagnosis etc. B. Medical care problems 1. Eighty-five percent of health problems could be solved by primary care procedures by general practitioners. 2. Fifteen percent of health problems need secondary medical procedures by a specialist. C. Medical cost Concidering the economic situation in rural area the amount of 2,062 won per residents during a year will be burdensome, so financial assistance is needed gorvernment to solve health and medical care problems for rural people.