• Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology
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• v.49 no.6
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• pp.676-684
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• 2017

The present study aimed to examine the hepatoprotective effects of ethanol extracts from steam-dried ginseng berry (SGBE) in both $\text\tiny{D}$-Galactosamine/Lipopolysaccharide ($\text\tiny{D}$-GalN/LPS)-sensitized mice and in vitro models. Our results clearly demonstrated that SGBE significantly reduced the level of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, and lactate dehydrogenase in blood, and $TNF{\alpha}$ was normalized in 8 h after the treatment with $\text\tiny{D}$-GalN/LPS. Coincidently, major organs remained unimpaired when compared to $\text\tiny{D}$-GalN/LPS control group. Moreover, p38, which stimulates expression of NAFLD-associated cytokines, was markedly inhibited when treated with SGBE. In vitro analysis revealed that the main components of SGBE, linoleic acid and ginsenoside Re/Rd, may play a role in protecting liver from $\text\tiny{D}$-GalN/LPS-induced toxicity. Finally, we concluded that SGBE may be a promising therapeutic agent for preventing damage to the liver.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.42 no.4
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• pp.496-503
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• 2018

Background: Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng) plays an anti-inflammatory role in a variety of inflammatory diseases such as gastritis, hepatitis, and colitis. However, inflammation-regulatory activity of the calyx of the P. ginseng berry has not been thoroughly evaluated. To understand whether the calyx portion of the P. ginseng berry is able to ameliorate inflammatory processes, an ethanolic extract of P. ginseng berry calyx (Pg-C-EE) was prepared, and lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages and HEK293 cells transfected with inflammation-regulatory proteins were used to test the anti-inflammatory action of Pg-C-EE. Methods: The ginsenoside contents of Pg-C-EE were analyzed by HPLC. Suppressive activity of Pg-C-EE on NO production, inflammatory gene expression, transcriptional activation, and inflammation signaling events were examined using the Griess assay, reverse transcription-polymerization chain reaction, luciferase activity reporter gene assay, and immunoblotting analysis. Results: Pg-C-EE reduced NO production and diminished mRNA expression of inflammatory genes such as cyclooxygenase-2, inducible NO synthase, and tumor necrosis factor-${\alpha}$ in a dose-dependent manner. This extract suppressed luciferase activity induced only by nuclear factor-${\kappa}B$. Interestingly, immunoblotting analysis results demonstrated that Pg-C-EE reduced the activities of protein kinase B (AKT)1 and AKT2. Conclusion: These results suggest that Pg-C-EE may have nuclear-factor-${\kappa}B$-targeted anti-inflammatory properties through suppression of AKT. The calyx of the P. ginseng berry is an underused part of the ginseng plant, and development of calyx-derived extracts may be useful for treatment of inflammatory diseases.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.37 no.2
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• pp.248-253
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• 2013

Leaves from Panax ginseng Meyer (Korean origin and Chinese origin of Korean ginseng) and P. quinquefolius (American ginseng) were harvested in Haenam province, Korea, and were analyzed to investigate patterns in major metabolites using HPLC-based metabolic profiling. Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was used to analyze the the HPLC chromatogram data. There was a clear separation between Panax species and/or origins from different countries in the PLS-DA score plots. The ginsenoside compounds of Rg1, Re, Rg2, Rb2, Rb3, and Rd in Korean leaves were higher than in Chinese and American ginseng leaves, and the Rb1 level in P. quinquefolius leaves was higher than in P. ginseng (Korean origin or Chinese origin). HPLC chromatogram data coupled with multivariate statistical analysis can be used to profile the metabolite content and undertake quality control of Panax products.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.41 no.3
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• pp.268-276
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• 2017

Background: UV-B-exposed keratinocytes secrete various paracrine factors. Among these factors, basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) stimulates the proliferation of melanocytes. Ginsenosides, the major active compounds of ginseng, are known to have broad pharmacological effects. In this study, we examined the antiproliferative effects of ginsenosides on bFGF-induced melanocyte proliferation. Methods: We investigated the inhibitory effects of Korean Red Ginseng and ginsenosides from Panax ginseng on bFGF-induced proliferation of melan-a melanocytes. Results: When melan-a melanocytes were treated with UV-B-irradiated SP-1 keratinocytes media, cell proliferation increased. This increased proliferation of melanocytes decreased with a neutralizing anti-bFGF antibody. To elucidate the effects of ginsenosides on melanocyte proliferation induced by bFGF, we tested 15 types of ginsenoside compounds. Among them, Rh3, Rh1, F1, and CK demonstrated antiproliferative effects on bFGF-induced melanocyte proliferation after 72 h of treatment. bFGF stimulated cell proliferation via extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation in various cell types. Western blot analysis found bFGF-induced ERK phosphorylation in melan-a. Treatment with Rh3 inhibited bFGF-induced maximum ERK phosphorylation and F1-delayed maximum ERK phosphorylation, whereas Rh1 and CK had no detectable effects. In addition, cotreatment with Rh3 and F1 significantly suppressed bFGF-induced ERK phosphorylation. Western blot analysis found that bFGF increased microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) protein levels in melan-a. Treatment with Rh3 or F1 had no detectable effects, whereas cotreatment with Rh3 and F1 inhibited bFGF-induced MITF expression levels more strongly than a single treatment. Conclusion: In summary, we found that ginsenosides Rh3 and F1 have a synergistic antiproliferative effect on bFGF-induced melan-a melanocyte proliferation via the inhibition of ERK-mediated upregulation of MITF.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.48 no.3
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• pp.310-322
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• 2024

Background: Osteosarcopenia is a common condition characterized by the loss of both bone and muscle mass, which can lead to an increased risk of fractures and disability in older adults. The study aimed to elucidate the response of various mouse strains to treatment with Rg3, one of the leading ginsenosides, on musculoskeletal traits and immune function, and their correlation. Methods: Six Collaborative Cross (CC) founder strains induced muscle atrophy and bone loss with dexamethasone (15 mg/kg) treatment for 1 month, and half of the mice for each strain were orally administered Rg3 (20 mg/kg). Different responses were observed depending on genetic background and Rg3 treatment. Results: Rg3 significantly increased grip strength, running performance, and expression of muscle and bone health-related genes in a two-way analysis of variance considering the genetic backgrounds and Rg3 treatment. Significant improvements in grip strength, running performance, bone area, and muscle mass, and the increased gene expression were observed in specific strains of PWK/PhJ. For traits related to muscle, bone, and immune functions, significant correlations between traits were confirmed following Rg3 administration compared with control mice. The phenotyping analysis was compiled into a public web resource called Rg3-OsteoSarco. Conclusion: This highlights the complex interplay between genetic determinants, pathogenesis of muscle atrophy and bone loss, and phytochemical bioactivity and the need to move away from single inbred mouse models to improve their translatability to genetically diverse humans. Rg3-OsteoSarco highlights the use of CC founder strains as a valuable tool in the field of personalized nutrition.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.41 no.3
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• pp.316-325
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• 2017

Background: Ginseng essence (GE) is a formulation comprising four medicinal and edible herbs including ginseng (Panax ginseng), American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), lotus seed (Nelumbo nucifera), and lily bulb (Lilium longiflorum). This study was aimed at investigating the hepatoprotective effect of GE against carbon tetrachloride ($CCl_4$)-induced liver injury in rats. Methods: We treated Wistar rats daily with low, medium, and high [0.625 g/kg body weight (bw), 1.25 g/kg bw, and 3.125 g/kg bw, respectively] doses of GE for 9 wk. After the 1st wk of treatment, rats were administered 20% $CCl_4$ (1.5 mL/kg bw) two times a week to induce liver damage until the treatment ended. Results: Serum biochemical analysis indicated that GE ameliorated the elevation of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase and albumin decline in $CCl_4$-treated rats. Moreover, $CCl_4$-induced accumulation of hepatic total cholesterol and triglyceride was inhibited. The hepatoprotective effects of GE involved enhancing the hepatic antioxidant defense system including glutathione, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, glutathione S-transferase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase. In addition, histological analysis using hematoxylin and eosin and Masson's trichrome staining showed that GE inhibited $CCl_4$-induced hepatic inflammation and fibrosis. Furthermore, immunohistochemical staining of alpha-smooth muscle actin indicated that $CCl_4$-triggered activation of hepatic stellate cells was reduced. Conclusion: These findings demonstrate that GE improves $CCl_4$-induced liver inflammation and fibrosis by attenuating oxidative stress. Therefore, GE could be a promising hepatoprotective herbal formulation for future development of phytotherapy.

• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.28 no.2
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• pp.119-127
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• 2020

Background: The aim of this study was done to identify whether mass produced wild ginseng culture broth prepared from cultivated wild ginseng roots could have an application in enhancing the agricultural utility value of leafy vegetables. Methods and Results: Leafy vegetables Lactuca sativa and Brassica juncea were treated with wild ginseng culture broth. Plants were examined and treatment (100 ㎖) applied twice a week over an eight week period. Total phenolic and flavonoid content of treated plants was then measured. Wild ginseng culture broth treatment resulted in phenolic and flavonoid content of 0.40 mg·GAE/㎖ and 0.36 mg·QE/㎖, respectively in L. sativa. When treated with wild ginseng culture broth, free radical scavenging ability was found to be higher in both L. sativa and B. juncea whereas antimicrobial activity was found to be higher in B. juncea (625 ㎍/㎖) than in L. sativa. Inorganic element analysis of L. sativa and B. juncea showed that Ca and Mg were higher in the wild ginseng broth treatment group, whereas harmful elements such as As were reduced. Conclusions: Rather than discarding the wild ginseng culture broth, it can be used as a fresh biomaterial by reprocessing it as agricultural products that can promote growth and improve functionality in plants.

• Proceedings of the Korean Society of Applied Pharmacology
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• 2003.11a
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• pp.98-98
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• 2003

${\beta}$-(1,3)-D-Glucans have been known to exhibit antitumor and antimicrobial activities. The presence of dectin-1,${\alpha}$, ${\beta}$-glucan receptor of dendritic cell, on macrophage has been controvertial. RT-PCR analysis led to the detection of dectin-1${\alpha}$ and ${\beta}$ in murine macrophage Raw264.7 cell line. Among the various organs of mouse, dectin-1${\alpha}$ and ${\beta}$ were detected in the thymus, lung, spleen, stomach and intestine. To analyze gene expression modulated by ${\beta}$-glucan treated murine Raw264.7 macrophage, total mRNA was applied to cDNA microarray to interrogate the expression of 7,000 known genes. cDNA chip analysis showed that ${\beta}$-glucan of P. osteatus increased gene expressions of immunomodulating genes, membrane antigenic proteins, chemokine ligands, complements, cytokines, various kinases, lectin associated genes and oncogenes in Raw 264.7 cell line. When treated with ${\beta}$-glucan of P. osteatus and LPS, induction of gene expression of TNF-${\alpha}$ and IFN-R1 was confirmed by RT-PCR analysis. Induction of TNF-R type II expression was confirmed by FACS analysis. IL-6 expression was abolished by EDTA in ${\beta}$-glucan and LPS treated Raw264.7 cell line, indicating that ${\beta}$-glucan binds to dectin-l in a Ca$\^$＋＋/ -dependent manner. To increase antitumor efficacy of ${\beta}$-glucan, ginsenoside Rh2 (GRh2) was co-treated with ${\beta}$-glucan in vivo and in vitro tests. IC$\sub$50/ values of GRh2 were 20 and 25 $\mu\textrm{g}$/$m\ell$ in SNU-1 and B16 melanoma F10 cell line, respectively. Co-treatment with ${\beta}$-glucan and GRh2 showed synergistic antitumor activity with cisplatin and mitomycin C both in vitro and in vivo. Single or co-treatment with ${\beta}$-glucan and GRh2 increased tumor bearing mouse life span. Co-treatment with ${\beta}$-glucan and GRh2 showed more increased life span with mitomycin C than that with cisplatin. Antitumor activities were 67% and 72 % by co-injection with ${\beta}$-glucan and GRh2 in the absence or presence of mitomycin C, respectively.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.44 no.5
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• pp.747-755
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• 2020

Background: Ginsenosides accumulation responses to temperature are critical to quality formation in cold-dependent American ginseng. However, the studies on cold requirement mechanism relevant to ginsenosides have been limited in this species. Methods: Two experiments were carried out: one was a multivariate linear regression analysis between the ginsenosides accumulation and the environmental conditions of American ginseng from different sites of China and the other was a synchronous determination of ginsenosides accumulation, overall DNA methylation, and relative gene expression in different tissues during different developmental stages of American ginseng after experiencing different cold exposure duration treatments. Results: Results showed that the variation of the contents as well as the yields of total and individual ginsenosides Rg1, Re, and Rb1 in the roots were closely associated with environmental temperature conditions which implied that the cold environment plays a decisive role in the ginsenoside accumulation of American ginseng. Further results showed that there is a cyclically reversible dynamism between methylation and demethylation of DNA in the perennial American ginseng in response to temperature seasonality. And sufficient cold exposure duration in winter caused sufficient DNA demethylation in tender leaves in early spring and then accompanied the high expression of flowering gene PqFT in flowering stages and ginsenosides biosynthesis gene PqDDS in green berry stages successively, and finally, maximum ginsenosides accumulation occurred in the roots of American ginseng. Conclusion: We, therefore, hypothesized that cold-induced DNA methylation changes might regulate relative gene expression involving both plant development and plant secondary metabolites in such cold-dependent perennial plant species.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.46 no.2
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• pp.296-303
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• 2022

Background: Skin microbiota is important for maintenance of skin homeostasis; however, its disturbance may cause an increase in pathogenic microorganisms. Therefore, we aimed to develop a red ginseng formulation that can selectively promote beneficial bacteria. Methods: The effects of red ginseng formulation on microorganism growth were analyzed by comparing the growth rates of Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, and Cutibacterium acnes. Various preservatives mixed with red ginseng formulation were evaluated to determine the ideal composition for selective growth promotion of S. epidermidis. Red ginseng formulation with selected preservative was loaded into a biocompatible polymer mixture and applied to the faces of 20 female subjects in the clinical trial to observe changes in the skin microbiome. Results: Red ginseng formulation promoted the growth of S. aureus and S. epidermidis compared to fructooligosaccharide. When 1,2-hexanediol was applied with red ginseng formulation, only S. epidermidis showed selective growth. The analysis of the release rates of ginsenoside-Rg1 and -Re revealed that the exact content of Pluronic F-127 was around 11%. The application of hydrogel resulted in a decrease in C. acnes in all subjects. In subjects with low levels of S. epidermidis, the distribution of S. epidermidis was significantly increased with the application of hydrogel formulation and total microbial species of subjects decreased by 50% during the clinical trial. Conclusion: We confirmed that red ginseng formulation with 1,2-hexanediol can help maintain skin homeostasis through improvement of skin microbiome.