• 건축역사연구
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• 제14권1호
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• pp.89-105
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• 2005

The central aim of this thesis is to see if the structure of Palsangjeon(捌相殿) in Pubjoo Temple(法住寺), a five sto wooden pagoda in Chosen(朝鮮) Dynasty, was handed down from the ancient and middle ages. This study was performed through an analysis of Gilt-Bronze Pagoda built in Koryo(高麗) period. In other words, it is aimed at analyzing which lineage the structure of Palsangjeonbelongs to as a wooden pagoda. In analyzing the structure of Palsangjeon, I attempted to find out its source from the remains of Koryo period prior to the Chosen Dynasty. Examples are the Gilt-Bronze Pagoda, built during the Koryo period. I have also examined its relationship with other existing wooden pagodas and remains. The analysis of Palsangjeon, a five story wooden pagoda in Chosen Dynasty, focuses on the following: First, I explored the possibilities of whether the structure of Palsangjeon was newly invented in Chosen Dynasty, or if it had been derived from the wooden pagodas in the Koryo period. Secondly, I tried to find out if the stable vertical planes, with a great successive diminution ratio, were derived from the middle age, i.e. Koryo period. The results of the study of Palsangjeon through Gilt-Bronze Pagoda analysis are as follows: 1. The structure of Gilt-Bronze Pagoda, a wooden pagoda from the Koryo period, is roughly classified into the accumulation type, using pipe pillars, and the one story type using whole pillars. In the accumulation type, stories are connected in either a flat format or an intervening format. The Gilt-Bronze Pagoda is mainly composed of pipe pillars, with some whole pillars. However, the central pillar was omitted in the building structure. Generally, the upper and lower stories are connected by pipe pillars in a crutch format. All the pillars, whether they are pipe pillars or whole pillars, used Naiten(內轉) technology. The Eave supporter has the Haang type(下昻) and the Muhaang type(無下昻). In most cases, high balustrades are furnished, but few tables of high balustrades have been found. The slanting roof formats have been handed down from Paekche(百濟), Silla(新羅), or Koryo(高麗). However, the structure of the octagon is assumed to be derived from Koguryo(高句麗). The structure of the Gilt-Bronze Pagoda from the Koryo period is mainly composed of accumulated flat squares, with some spire types. intervening format, the structure of Palsangjeon used whole pillars in a half story format in which upper level side pillars are installed on the lower level tie beam. From the Bronze Pagoda from the Koryo period, we can assume that the half story format of wooden pagodas that has stable vertical planes with a great successive diminution ratio was created during the mid-Koryo period at the latest and had been idly developed by the time of the Chosen Dynasty. 3. The whole pillars in Palsangjeon are also found in Gilt-Bronze Pagodas from the Koryo period. Hence, all of the pillars in Palsangjeon seem to have been handed down from the ancient construction technology. They were also used in the construction of wooden pagodas from the Koryo period. Therefore, it is assumed that Palsangjeon was constructed using the construction technology of the Chosen Dynasty that had been developed from the wooden pagoda construction technology of the Koryo period. The stable vertical planes with a great successive diminution ratio in Palsangjeon are derived from ancient Korean wooden pagodas, which have developed into indigenous Korean wooden pagodas with fairly stable vertical planes and a great design, in the half story format of Koryo and Chosen Dynasty. Therefore, it is assumed that the structure of Palsangjeon has a systematic relationship with traditional Korean wooden pagodas and is one of the indigenous Korean wooden pagoda structures. 4. In China, the intervening format has been mainly used between stories in multi-story architecture since the ancient days. At the same time, the flat format as also used in ancient and middle ages. However, the flat format was replaced by whole pillars during the Ming(明) and Manchu(淸) Dynasties, in favor of simple and compact construction. The half-story format, in which upper level side pillars are installed on tie beams, has been found in some cases, but it doesn't seem to have been the primary construction technology. Few traces of the half-story format have been found in multi-story architecture in Japan, and it has not been used as a general construction format. By contrast, the half-story format, which seems to have been derived from the Koryo period, was used as a general construction format in multi-story architecture of the Chosen Dynasty. The construction technology of multi-story architecture is related to that of multi-story wooden pagodas, but they have different production technologies. It seems that the structure of Palsangjeon did not just adopt the construction technology of multi-story architecture in the Chosen Dynasty, but it was developed from wooden pagodas in the Koryo period, including the Gilt-Bronze Pagoda. 5. Since the ancient days, most Chinese and Japanese wooden pagodas have adopted an accumulation type of structure using pipe pillars, with accumulated pointed towers. On the other hand, though most Korean wooden pagodas have also adopted an accumulation type of structure from the ancientdays, one story type using whole pillars was created in the Koryo and Chosen Dynasties. The wooden pagoda structure of Palsangjeon, with stable vertical planes in a half story format, is a unique Korean construction technology, different from the construction technologies of Chinese and Japanese wooden pagodas. This thesis clearly determined the structural characteristics of Palsangjeon. However, various remains have yet to be analyzed in depth, to establish an accurate construction technology system. In the beginning of this thesis, I had difficulty in precisely interpreting the internal structure of the Gilt-Bronze Pagoda from its appearance. However, in the process of study, the more serious problem was that there are few remains or ruins of multi-story architecture in ancient and the middle ages of Korea. Therefore, it is urgent to discover various remains in the future. This thesis succeeded in determining the structural characteristics of Palsangjeon. However, it fell short of clarifying the structural lineage of the stable vertical planes, although they show indigenous Korean architectural taste, representing the unique national emotion, and the construction format of multi-story wooden pagodas in Korea. I hope this is clarified in the future research.

• 헤리티지:역사와 과학
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• 제42권3호
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• pp.66-87
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• 2009

적석목곽묘는 목곽 외부에 석재를 쌓거나 채운 다음 목개 위에 일정한 두께로 적석하고 점토로 밀봉한 구조이다. 경주 중심부라는 한정된 공간 속에 거의 모든 지배자가 지속적으로 한 묘제를 사용하였다는 점, 타 지역에서 확인되는 적석 형태와 전혀 다르다는 점 등에서 경주식 적석목곽묘로 정의하고자 한다. 적석목곽묘는 경주 중심부에서 5C 전반대부터 축조되기 시작한다. 평면형태, 목곽, 이중곽, 석재충전, 석단, 순장 등은 이전시기의 목곽묘에서 계보를 잇고 있다. 이외에 석축과 목주, 적석, 성토분구는 적석목곽묘의 출현과 함께 새롭게 나타나는 요소이다. 특히 석축과 목주는 황남대총을 비롯한 지상식 초대형분에서만 확인된다. 석축과 목주, 적석은 모두 성토 분구 축조과정 속에서 하나의 공정을 이루고 있다. 석축은 지상에 설치된 목곽의 외벽을 견고하게 유지시켜 주면서 성토 분구의 하중을 분산 수용한다. 목주는 석축의 붕괴를 방지하기 위한 보조장치로서 횡가목, 버팀목 등과 함께 사용되었다. 적석은 일정 크기의 석재를 갖고 일정한 두께로 목개 상부에 덮었다. 그리고 그 위에 점토로 밀봉한 다음 분구를 성토하였다. 적석은 경주지역의 입지적 특성이 반영된 것으로 파악된다. 경주 중심부의 적석목곽묘는 하천부지가 넓고 평탄한 형산강 동안을 따라 분포한다. 기반층은 대부분 모래와 냇돌로 구성되어 있다. 따라서 성토분구는 모래성분을 많이 함유하고 있다. 목개를 횡가한 다음 바로 성토할 경우 유수에 의한 붕괴 가능성 또한 크다. 고분의 외형을 유지하면서 내부구조물의 파괴를 방지하기 위하여 적석과 점토밀봉이 이루어진 것으로 판단된다. 상부의 봉토가 유실되더라도 하부의 적석은 형태를 어느 정도 유지할 것이기 때문이다. 성토분구는 국가 혹은 단위정치체가 성장단계에 진입하면서 나타나는 하나의 특징이다. 국가 출현단계 이후 성장단계에 진입하면서 사회구조에 변화가 나타나고 이와 맞물려 새롭게 출현한 지배등급에서 전대의 목곽묘와는 다른 적석목곽묘를 축조하기 시작한 것으로 판단된다. 이 과정에서 분구를 함께 성토한 것으로 파악되며, 지배등급의 성격에 따라 규모와 구조에서 차이를 보인다. 평면형태, 곽과 석단, 순장자의 수, 유물의 양과 질 등은 지배등급의 사회적 지위를 반영하고 있다. 따라서 적석목곽묘는 신라가 성장단계에 접어든 시점에 전대의 묘제로부터 분화 발전된 양상을 보이면서 나타난것으로 생각된다.

• 보존과학회지
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• 제36권1호
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• pp.15-27
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• 2020

The Main Hall of the Fengguo monastery in Yixian county, Liaoning province, China, is the best preserved and largest wooden Buddhist structure, typical of the Liao dynasty style, in China. However, some degradation to the timber frame of the Main Hall has been noted, and this is causing concern in terms of the long-term preservation of the structure. In this study, wooden pillars showing the degradation phenomena of whitening, for areas in contact with the stone floor, and extensive surface damage at higher locations(mostly above 1 m) have been examined. Samples taken from wooden pillar surfaces were analyzed using X-ray powder diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy(FTIR), ion chromatography, and pH measurements. With respect to the whitening phenomenon, we found inorganic calcium precipitates and oxalate ions, along with higher pH values. These symptoms indicated that chemical changes were taking place in response to alkaline conditions, suggesting that alkaline mixtures with calcium content in the foundations may be responsible. Regarding the upper surface-damaged areas, no valid evidence for chemical degradation was found using FTIR analysis, while damaged areas exhibited the presence of more bat guano-related materials than which were apparent in undamaged areas. The occurrence of this surface-damaged phenomenon has therefore been attributed to physical damage caused by bat activity over long periods of time.

• 건축역사연구
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• 제14권3호
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• pp.103-118
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• 2005

This study is about the meaning of wooden brackets that are distinctive elements of wooden architecture in Korea, Japan, and China. Existing studies about wooden brackets have been limited to the boundary of formalism, so the object of this study is to make a breakthrough in the field of those studies. The Wooden brackets in this study are considered to be decorative elements, and the principles of their design are examined. The specific subject of the study is wooden architecture with Jusimpo-styled brackets that have brackets only on pillars. The definition of Jusimpo is reexamined first, and ChulMok-Ikkong which has not been regarded as a Jusimpo-styled wooden bracket is interpreted as Jusimpo-styled one in this study. Categorized into three types, Jusimpo is examined how it is expressed according to the type of the roof in a building. In view of the results, the wooden bracket system is an effective technique to express the formality, and two designing principles can be seen in Jusimpo; one that wooden brackets observed externally are standardized and regarded as the same ones, and the other that the style of wooden brackets used in the most formal building is Yi-ChulMok. These designing principles mean that the carpenter who was in charge of building the architecture had certain principles when expressing wooden brackets as well as the roofs according to the class of the architecture. In addition, although the styles of wooden brackets that were used in the most formal architecture during the Chosun period were mostly Dapo, Jusimpo in the form of Yi-ChulMok was also adopted in some temples depending on their scale, and that means Jusimpo-styled wooden brackets were never considered to be inferior to Dapo-styled ones. And this point leaves the argument that the reexamination of Jusimpo-styled wooden brackets which have been regarded as the style used in the attached building or small structures since the Choun dynasty should be conducted.

• 한국농촌건축학회논문집
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• 제4권1호
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• pp.71-86
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• 2002

This research aims to illustrate the structure of the ancient Korean wooden buildings by a comparative study of the historical resources such as stone remains, wall paintings historiographies and excavations. As stone pagodas are the most typical stone remains, I selected for analysis some stone pagodas which contain architectural elements and results of the study are as follows: 1) The number of stories and structural modes of the base stone part show the wooden architectural aspects: they have one or two stories and their base part is constructed in the mode of assembling rectangular stones. 2) The body of the pagoda contains such architectural elements as pillars, door and windows, crossbeams, balcony, bracket sets. 3) The roof of the stone pagoda contains such architectural elements as eaves, roofs and modes of stone assembling. The results inferred through this research could be of help for further comparative studies with the other secondary materials by providing basic knowledge for it.

• Journal of the Korean Wood Science and Technology
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• 제44권6호
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• pp.897-902
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• 2016

This study was conducted to identify wood species from main pillars of Daeungjeon Hall, the main building of Jeonghyesa Temple located in Suncheon, Jeollanamdo Province in Korea. It was known that this temple had been built in the $8^{th}$ century by Hyeso, a national master in the Unified Silla period, and was designated as Treasure No. 804 in 1984 due to its historic and academic values. The results of wood species identification showed that main pillars from Daeungjeon Hall of the Jeonghyesa Temple were made of hard pine, Korean fir (Abies spp.) and Zelkova tree (Zelkova spp.). In addition to the wood species identification, floor plan documentation was also done to help identify what wood species had been used for main pillars. These results could be applied and utilized for the conservation and restoration of Daeungjeon Hall in future. This study may help with the authenticity of conservation works.

• 한국산학기술학회논문지
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• 제15권5호
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• pp.3192-3202
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• 2014

본 연구는 국가지정문화재로 지정된 목조건축물 중 합각지붕 형식을 가지고 있는 사찰의 주불전 32동을 대상으로 규모에 따라 규모별 구성요소의 구체적 특성을 분석하고, 주요 부재 상호간 미치는 영향이나 비례관계 등을 분석하여 향후 문화재 복원 및 보수를 위한 객관적인 기초자료를 제공하는데 목적으로 하고 있다. 연구 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 평면비례는 3칸 건축물에서 도리통(전면)과 양통(측면)의 평균비례는 1.31:1 정도이며, 5칸 건축물 평균비례는 1.70:1로 이루어져 있다. 둘째, 주칸비례 및 위치별 기둥 굵기를 분석한 결과, 3칸 및 5칸 건축물 모두 어칸이 퇴칸이나 협칸에 비해 주칸을 넓게 형성한 것으로 나타났다. 또한 3칸 건축물 평균 기둥 굵기는 귀기둥 491mm, 평주 433mm 정도이며, 5칸 건축물에서는 귀기둥 595mm, 평주 511mm 정도의 굵기로 분석되었다. 귀기둥 굵기가 평주보다 평균 60mm~80mm정도 굵게 이루어진 것은 구조적인 안정성과 착시현상을 고려한 것으로 판단된다. 셋째, 건물규모(면적)에 따른 기둥 굵기, 처마 내밀기, 차마높이에 미치는 영향을 분석한 결과, 3칸 건축물에서는 건물규모(면적)가 큰 건물일수록 크게 나타나는 상관관계를 갖고 있는 것으로 나타났으나, 5칸 건축물에서는 건물규모(면적)에 크게 영향을 받지 않는 것으로 분석되었다. 넷째, 기둥과 처마와의 관계 분석 결과, 3칸 건축물과 5칸 건축물에서 모두 기둥 길이가 긴 건물일수록 처마높이와 처마 내밀기를 크게 둔 것으로 나타났으며, 특히 처마높이는 기둥 길이와 아주 밀접한 상관관계를 가지고 있는 것으로 분석되었다. 또한 3칸 건축물과 5칸 건축물에서 모두 처마 내밀기가 큰 건물일수록 처마높이도 높게 형성된 것으로 분석되었다.

• 건축역사연구
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• 제24권5호
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• pp.33-40
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• 2015

The present study is aimed to reconsider the time of installation and the purpose of the square footstone located at the center of the wooden pagoda in Hwangnyongsa Temple, based on related precedent studies. Precedent studies are divided into two streams of assertions: one is that the square footstone was to support the major pillars at the time of building and the other is that it was installed to store Buddhist reliquaries inside the central foundation stone after the wood pagoda burnt down in the Invasion of Mongol. Summarizing the grounds with which the precedent studies support their assertions, they are the relation with Gaseopbul Yeonjwaseok, the emerging time of the square footstone, repairing work at the level of reconstruction, additional enshrinement of general Buddhist reliquaries and so on. The present study reviewed the key grounds suggested in the previous studies regarding the square footstone. First, it was determined that the square footstone has nothing to do with Gaseopbul Yeonjwaseok, after looking into the timings of appearance, condition and shape in literatures. Rather, it was assumed that Gaseopbul Yeonjwaseok resembles a stone column. Next, the square footstone is assumed to be installed after the 4th year of King Kwangjong's rule because the wood pagoda was lost in fire in the 4th year of Kwangjong's rule and it had been left alone for 68 years until the repair work finished in the 13th year of King Hyunjong. It is assumed that repair works at the level of reconstruction had been twice in total, say, once during King Kyungmun and Hyunjong, respectively. Next, looking into the establishment of the general Buddhist reliquaries and the repair work during King Kyungmun, it was not common then to enshrine additional Buddhist reliquaries when repair work progressed and so there was not an additional enshrinement of Buddhist reliquaries after King Kyungmun. However, it is hard to decide that there was no repair work at the level of reconstruction at that time. Last, we can find a similar case to the square footstone of the wood pagoda in Hwangnyongsa Temple in the copper pagoda in Japanese Yaksasa Temple. In conclusion, it is assumed that the wooden pagoda in Hwangnyongsa Temple was lost to the fire in the 4th year of King Kwangjong's rule and thus the square footstone had been used as Jinho stone to protect Buddhist reliquaries and used as a propping stone for the major pillars after King Hyungjong.

• Journal of the Korean Wood Science and Technology
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• 제36권1호
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• pp.1-11
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• 2008

안성 석남사 영산전에 쓰인 주요 목부재의 수종을 식별하기 위하여 기둥, 창방, 대들보, 서까래, 청판 등 총 95점에 대하여 조사하였다. 수종은 소나무류(경송류), 외래산 소나무류, 느티나무, 은행나무, 감나무속, 배나무속, 참나무속의 상수리나무류 등 7 수종이 식별되었다. 기둥에서는 소나무류(경송류) 8점, 느티나무 1점, 배나무속 1점이 확인되었다. 추녀에서는 은행나무 2점과 느티나무 2점, 대들보에서는 소나무 1점과 느티나무 1점이 나왔다. 주심도리는 2점 모두 상수리나무류이었고, 서까래에서는 은행나무 1점과 외래산 소나무류 1점을 제외하고는 나머지는 소나무류인 것으로 밝혀졌다. 적심목에서 느티나무 1점과 감나무속 1점이 나왔다. 다른 부재는 소나무류가 대부분이었다. 서까래에서 나온 외래산 소나무 1점은 해방 이후 영산전 수리 시 사용된 것으로 추정되었다. 소나무류 이외에 다양한 수종의 목재가 사용된 것은 사찰 인근에서 쉽게 구할 수 있는 수종들을 이용하였기 때문인 것으로 사료된다.

• 한국농촌건축학회논문집
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• 제18권1호
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• pp.19-28
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• 2016

This research aimed to suggest a standard design that reflects Hanok design tendency, and present a selective design that can fulfill a building owner's intention beyond the simple function of building permit or report. In addition, this research attempted to become a standard by establishing a criterion in calculating the measurements of section design or primary framework members, in order to be a guideline for designing Hanok in different sizes and forms. The results are as follows. The building area of Hanok standard design was set to be below $85m^2$, with a straight type of $83.16m^2$ and an L-shape of $84.24m^2$. By dividing the plane into a straight type and L-shape, two straight types were suggested: 'general type' and 'large living room type.' The upper floor space, along with the main room and small room, was proposed as an option to be changed into a room where an underfloor heating is installed depending on the building owner's intention. In addition, a criterion for side design and calculation of framework measurements was suggested and applied, while a five-girder design without high pillars was suggested for material-assembling structure. Two types of pillars-circumference and square cylinder-were proposed for the building owner to choose from, and a pointed beam house and ikgong(orthogonally-projected bracket) house were suggested for pojak bracket structure so either of them could be chosen according to the building owner's taste and economic condition. Finally, the sectional size of main materials were divided according to the form of pojak bracket structure to be proposed.