• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.14 no.1
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• pp.104-113
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• 2001

Smallholder dairy production systems in developing countries are discussed with reference to type of systems, their characteristics, potential, and opportunities for improvement. Three types of dairy systems are identified and described: smallholder systems, smallholder cooperative dairy production systems, and intensive dairy production systems. The first two systems are by far the most important, and are associated with increasing intensification. Buffaloes are especially important in South Asia, but elsewhere dairy production mainly involves Holstein-Friesian cross-bred cattle. Dairy goats are important in some countries, but are generally neglected in development programmes. The expansion and intensification of smallholder dairy production is fueled by increased demand for milk with associated problems of milk handling and distribution, hygiene and environmental pollution. The major constraints to production are inter alia, choice of species, breeds and availability of animals; feed resources and improved feeding systems; improved breeding, reproduction, and animal health care; management of animal manure, and organised marketing, and market outlets. These constraints provide major opportunities and challenges for research and development to increase dairy production, efficient management of natural resources, and improved livelihoods of poor farmers. Specific areas for research are identified, as also the need of a holistic focus involving interdisciplinary research and integrated natural resource management, in a shared partnership between farmers and scientists that can demonstrate increased productivity and sustainable production systems. Suggestions for performance indicators in smallholder dairy production systems are indicated.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.12 no.2
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• pp.215-219
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• 1999

This study aims to make detail examination of smallholder dairy farming systems in the Nongpho Dairy Cooperative. Forty-three dairy farms were selected from three geographical areas i.e. irrigated area, municipality area, and factory area. Within each area some number of sample farms were selected from each of the three levels of farm and animal crowdedness (very crowded, crowded, and not crowded farms). Detail data were collected during 1996 to 1997, they were socio-economic conditions of the sample farms and farmers, dairy production systems and management of resources (animals, bam, feeds, stocking rates, herd structure, animal body conditions, milk yield and milk quality, manure and farm wastes management, and other related items). Detail information useful for the improvement of farm production efficiency were discussed. It was very clear that much improvement of smallholder dairy production can be achieved if the recommendations given by this study were implemented.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.14 no.8
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• pp.1098-1105
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• 2001

There is little information on smallholder dairy farming in Zimbabwe. With such inadequate knowledge, no meaningful decisions on how to improve these systems can be made. A study was, therefore, carried out in Nharira communal area and Lancashire small-scale commercial area to provide information on the viability of dairy farms. This paper is based on data obtained through participatory monitoring of 13 smallholder dairy farms in 1996 and 1997. All the four farms in Lancashire were found to be viable in both years. In Nharira, two out of the nine farms in 1996 and three farms in 1997 failed to break even. There were considerable inter-farm differences in the contribution of milk sales towards total income from dairy farming, ranging from 41% to 99% in Nharira and 71% to 81% in Lancashire in 1996. Corresponding estimates in 1997 were 51-95% and 72-78%, respectively. Expenses on cattle feeds contributed 36-84% in 1996 and 37-80% in 1997 towards total variable costs in Nharira. In Lancashire, the respective estimates were 15-33% and 22-36%. Seven out of the nine studied farms in Nharira and three out of four in Lancashire realized higher gross margin (GM) in 1997 than in 1996. All these farming households had conserved considerable amounts of farm-grown feeds. It was concluded that feed costs, number of cows and sizes of land holdings were the main factors determining viability of smallholder dairy farming. The major challenge to smallholder dairy farming in Nharira, in particular, was to develop low-cost feeding strategies.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.33 no.12
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• pp.2039-2049
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• 2020

Objective: This study was conducted to provide models to accurately predict nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) excretion of dairy cows on smallholder farms in Indonesia based on readily available farm data. Methods: The generic model in this study is based on the principles of the Lucas equation, describing the relation between dry matter intake (DMI) and faecal N excretion to predict the quantity of faecal N (Q_FN). Excretion of urinary N and faecal P were calculated based on National Research Council recommendations for dairy cows. A farm survey was conducted to collect input parameters for the models. The data set was used to calibrate the model to predict Q_FN for the specific case. The model was validated by comparing the predicted quantity of faecal N with the actual quantity of faecal N (Q_FNACT) based on measurements, and the calibrated model was compared to the Lucas equation. The models were used to predict N and P excretion of all 144 dairy cows in the data set. Results: Our estimate of true N digestibility equalled the standard value of 92% in the original Lucas equation, whereas our estimate of metabolic faecal N was -0.60 g/100 g DMI, with the standard value being -0.61 g/100 g DMI. Results of the model validation showed that the R² was 0.63, the MAE was 15 g/animal/d (17% from Q_FNACT), and the RMSE was 20 g/animal/d (22% from Q_FNACT). We predicted that the total N excretion of dairy cows in Indonesia was on average 197 g/animal/d, whereas P excretion was on average 56 g/animal/d. Conclusion: The proposed models can be used with reasonable accuracy to predict N and P excretion of dairy cattle on smallholder farms in Indonesia, which can contribute to improving manure management and reduce environmental issues related to nutrient losses.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.12 no.2
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• pp.220-225
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• 1999

The environmental conditions in smallholder dairy farms especially the effects of dairy wastes on waters and soil were the main objectives of this investigation. Forty-three dairy farms from an older dairy cooperative (Nongpho Dairy Cooperative, NP) were compared with four dairy fauns from relatively new dairy cooperative (Kamphaengsaen Dairy Cooperative, KS) for the quality parameters of water and soil samples during a 12-month period. Forty-three farms at NP were from three geographical areas and three levels farm crowdedness. The results from this study clearly showed that the waste waters from older dairy barns contained much higher levels of organic and inorganic substances which could create environmental pollution if not properly managed. The differences in waste water qualities due to areas and seasons were not significant, while waste water samples from crowded farms tended to contain higher averages of waste water parameters such as COD and BOD. Highly significant correlations between pairs of waste water parameters indicated that certain parameters can be used without the need for chemical analysis of some other parameters. The qualities of well water on dairy farms as well as water samples from public waterways nearby indicated some contamination of dairy wastes such as manure. Storage and sun-drying of dairy manure on bare soil surface could result in the contamination of underground water and nearby water sources. Some recommendations from this study if implemented can prevent environmental pollution in smallholder dairy farms.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.13 no.10
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• pp.1461-1466
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• 2000

The use of the dairy male calf for beef production has been found to be economically unprofitable during the past due to high cost of feeds and relatively low beef price. However, due to current shortage of domestic beef supply and rising beef price, this research aimed to assess feeding methods and costs and returns in raising dairy male calves for beef production under changing economic conditions. Two diets were compared: calves on an optimal feeding level were given milk replacer for 44 d and a concentrate (with ad lib. hay) to 150 kg bodyweight that contained 16% crude protein; those given a sub-optimal diet, more appropriate for smallholder farms, received milk replacer for 30 d and 14% CP concentrate. Twelve pairs of dairy male calves (average age 32 days) of Holstein-Friesian high grades were used, each pair having similar influencing factors such as weight, age, and genotype. Each animal was kept in a separate feeding stall until reaching the final weight of 150 kg. The results from this experiment showed that the differences of traits concerning growth performance and feed efficiency of the animals raised under the two feeding regimes were statistically nonsignificant. The optimal group was just slightly better, but the cost of production of the sub-optimal group was 24 percent lower (4,667 vs. 6,144 baht per animal) and the cost difference was highly significant. The results from this investigation showed that beef production from dairy male calves can be economically viable when sub-optimal feeding method is used and market beef price is at current level.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.14 no.3
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• pp.372-377
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• 2001

A study on the prevalence and causes of sub-clinical mastitis was conducted on ten smallholder and large-scale dairy farms in Morogoro urban and peri-urban areas. A total of 65 lactating cows were screened using the California Mastitis Test (CMT). Confirmatory tests used included; the direct microscopic somatic cell count (DMSCC), culture, bacteriological and biochemical tests. Structured questionnaires were used to collect information on management aspects. Results showed 62% and 4% cows as sub- clinical and clinical mastitis cases respectively. Levels of infection were higher on smallholder farms (75%) than on large-scale farms (25%). All tested cows had high cell counts (>500,000) per ml of milk. Incidences of mastitis were significantly (p<0.05) related to milking practices. The dominant bacterial isolates in the same order were Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp, and Escherichia coli. Other organisms isolated included Pseudomonas spp and Klebsiella spp. It was concluded that the high rates of sub-clinical mastitis in the research area were mainly due to poor management and unhygienic milking practices.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.22 no.12
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• pp.1709-1717
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• 2009

This review presents a series of Key Performance Indicators (KPI) to assist Asian smallholder dairy farmers in identifying the possible causes for their poor farm performance and profitability. When assessing farm profitability, these indicators can be split into two types, those diagnosing problems with feeding management and those indicating poor herd management. As home grown forage is generally cheaper to source than purchased forage, the more produced on farm, the better. Too many stock on limited land is a common feature on Asian dairy small holdings. Unlike other classes of livestock, milking cows have very high nutrient requirements, therefore high quality forages and concentrates are essential for profitable dairying. Milk income less feed cost is one of the simplest and easy to measure indicators of farm profitability and is also quick to respond to small changes in farm practices. Problems with herd management can be diagnosed using measures such as the proportion of cows actually milking in the herd or their peak yield and persistency of production. There are also simple indicators of herd reproductive performance and of health and growth of young stock that assist in searching for the underlying causes of poor farm profitability.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.13 no.6
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• pp.830-836
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• 2000

A participation scheme involving smallholder dairy farmers in improving dairy productivity through the use of local feeds, on-farm established feeds and crop residues was carried out in the Northeast, Thailand. At six milk collection centers, 63 farmers with 340 lactating cows participated in this research and demonstration of feed supplements. Farmers and cows were allotted to receive respective feed supplements: high-quality feed block (HQFB), high-quality feed pellet (HQFP), dried cassava leaf/cassava hay, dried leucaena leaf and cottonseed meal: 5% urea treated rice straw was fed as a source of roughage throughout the feeding period of the dry season. Trainings and workshops were organized by the researchers at the University, research station, demonstration sites and on-farms. Regular visits to the fartns by researchers and extension officers were made while discussions and demonstrations were performed in addition. Participating farmers also visited other farmers during the demonstration which offered a real practical perspective and farmer-to-farmer interaction. As a result of this participation and demonstration scheme, the farmers could learn more effectively and accepted the technology more readily, especially the practicality of the feed preparation, feed establishment, feeding method and feed reserve. Strategic supplementation of these feed supplements resulted in improving milk yield, milk quality, overall condition of the cows and higher income return through increased productivity and lower level use of concentrate to milk yield from 1:2 to 1:3 or lower. Based on this research and demonstration /participation scheme, all feed supplements enhanced productivity, however the establishment of cassava hay on fartns deserved more attention and warrants a wider developmental expansion among dairy farmers since it contained high rumen by-pass protein (tannin-protein complex) and could be easily produced and be sustainable on farms.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.25 no.9
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• pp.1322-1328
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• 2012

Antibiotic resistance patterns of bacterial isolates from both quarter teat-tip swabs and their quarter milk samples were evaluated in smallholder dairy farms in northern Thailand with excessive use of antibiotics (HIGH) compared with normal use (NORM). Results from teat-tip swab samples showed that the percentage of Bacillus spp. resistance to overall antibiotics was significantly lower in the NORM group than that of the HIGH group, whereas, the resistance percentage of coagulase-negative staphylococci in the NORM group was higher than that of the HIGH one. The overall mastitis-causing bacteria isolated from milk samples were environmental streptococci (13.8%), coagulase-negative staphylococci (9.9%), Staphylococcus aureus (5.4%), and Corynebacterium bovis (4.5%). Both staphylococci and streptococci had significantly higher percentages of resistance to cloxacillin and oxacillin in the HIGH group when compared to the NORM one. An occurrence of vancomycin-resistant bacteria was also observed in the HIGH group. In conclusion, the smallholder dairy farms with excessive use of antibiotics had a higher probability of antibiotic-resistant pattern than the farms with normal use.