• KSCE Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering Research
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• v.31 no.1B
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• pp.29-36
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• 2011

Evapotranspiration (ET) from the various surfaces needs to be understood because it is a crucial hydrological factor to grasp interaction between the land surface and the atmosphere. A traditional way of estimating it, which is calculating it empirically using lysimeter and pan evaporation observations, has a limitation that the measurements represent only point values. However, these measurements cannot describe ET because it is easily affected by outer circumstances. Thus, remote sensing technology was applied to estimate spatial distribution of ET. In this study, we estimated major components of energy balance method (i.e. net radiation flux, soil heat flux, sensible heat flux, and latent heat flux) and ET as a map using Mapping Evapo-Transpiration with Internalized Calibration (METRIC) satellite-based image processing model. This model was run using Landsat imagery of Gyeongan watershed in Korea on Feb 1, 2003 and Sep 13, 2006. Basic statistical analyses were also conducted. The estimated mean daily ETs had respectively 22% and 11% of errors with pan evaporation data acquired from the Suwon Weather Station. This result represented similar distribution compared with previous studies and confirmed that the METRIC algorithm had high reliability in the watershed. In addition, ET distribution of each land use type was separately examined. As a result, it was identified that vegetation density had dominant impacts on distribution of ET. Seasonally, ET in a growing season represented significantly higher than in a dormant season due to more active transpiration. The ET maps will be useful to analyze how ET behaves along with the circumstantial conditions; land cover classification, vegetation density, elevation, topography.

• Atmosphere
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• v.16 no.2
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• pp.111-124
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• 2006

This study examines seasonal variability of the surface energy balance at the King Sejong Station, Antarctica, using measurements and estimates of the components related to the balance for the period of 1996 to 2004. Annual average of downward shortwave radiation at the surface is 81 $Wm^{-2}$ which is 37% of the extraterrestrial value, with the monthly maximum of 188 $Wm^{-2}$ in December and the minimum of 8 $Wm^{-2}$ in June. These values are relatively smaller than those at other stations in Antarctica, which can be attributed to higher cloudy weather conditions in Antarctic front zone. Surface albedo varies between ~0.3 in the austral summer season and ~0.6 in the winter season. As a result, the net shortwave radiation ranges from 117 $Wm^{-2}$ down to 3 $Wm^{-2}$ with annual averages of 43 $Wm^{-2}$. Annual average of the downward longwave radiation shows 278 $Wm^{-2}$, ranging from 263 $Wm^{-2}$ in August to 298 $Wm^{-2}$ in January. The downward longwave radiation is verified to be dependent strongly on the air temperature and specific humidity, accounting for 74% and 79% of the total variance in the longwave radiation, respectively. The net longwave radiation varies between 25 $Wm^{-2}$ and 40 $Wm^{-2}$ with the annual averages of 30 $Wm^{-2}$. Accordingly, the annual average energy balance is dominated by radiative warming of a positive net all-wave radiation from September to next March and radiative cooling of a negative net all-wave radiation from April to August. The net all-wave radiative energy gain and loss at the surface is mostly balanced by turbulent flux of sensible and latent heat. The soil heat flux is of negligible importance in the surface energy balance.

• Atmosphere
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• v.27 no.2
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• pp.177-188
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• 2017

The development mechanisms of an unusual heavy snowfall event, which occurred in the coast of Jeju Island on 23 January 2016 were investigated through a thermodynamic approach. The formation of heavy snowfall was attributed to the enhanced thermal convection in two ways. First, the convection was enhanced by the air-sea temperature difference between the cold air advection in low-troposphere associated with the strengthening of the Siberian High and abnormal warm sea surface temperature, which is $1{\sim}2^{\circ}C$ higher than normal year over the Yellow Sea (YS). Second, the convective instability was increased by the vertical temperature gradient between the 7 days-sustained cold air advection in low-troposphere and the abrupt cold air intrusion in mid-troposphere induced by the southward shift of a cold cut-off vortex ($-45^{\circ}C$) at the formation stage. Compared to the twelve hours prior to the formation, the low-level moisture increased by 5% through the moisture supply from the YS, and the air-sea temperature difference increased from $18.5^{\circ}C$ to $28.5^{\circ}C$. Furthermore, the upward sensible (latent) heat flux increased 1.5 (1.2) times over the YS before the twelve hours prior to the formation. Thereafter, the sustained moisture supply and upward turbulent heat flux helped to maintain the snowstorm.

• Korean Journal of Agricultural and Forest Meteorology
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• v.13 no.2
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• pp.56-68
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• 2011

Wet canopy evaporation ($E_{WC}$) has been recognized as a significant component of total evapotranspiration, especially in forests and therefore it is critical to accurately assess $E_{WC}$ to understand forest hydrological cycle. In this review, I focused on the measurement methods and evaluating the magnitudes of $E_{WC}$ at diverse forest types (e.g., deciduous, coniferous, mixed, and rain forests). I also present the general issues to be considered for $E_{WC}$ measurements. The commonly used measurement methods for $E_{WC}$ include the water balance, energy balance, and the Penman-Monteith (PM) methods. The magnitudes of $E_{WC}$ ranged from 5 to 54% of precipitation based on the literature review, showing a large variation even for a similar forest type possibly related to canopy structure, rainfall intensity, and other meteorological conditions. Therefore, it is difficult to draw a general conclusion on the contribution of $E_{WC}$ to evapotranspiration from a particular forest type. Errors can arise from the measurements of precipitation (due to varying wind effect) and throughfall (due to spatial variability caused by canopy structure) for water balance method, the measurements of sensible heat flux and heat storage for energy balance method, and the estimation of aerodynamic conductance and unaccounted sensible heat advection for the PM method. For a reliable estimation of $E_{WC}$, the combination of ecohydrological and micrometeorological methods is recommended.

• Journal of Korean Society on Water Environment
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• v.25 no.6
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• pp.922-934
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• 2009

The transport of contaminants and spatial variation in a deep reservoir are certainly governed by the thermal structure of the reservoir. There has been continuous efforts to utilize three-dimensional (3D) hydrodynamic and water quality models for supporting reservoir management, but the efforts to validate the models performance using extensive field data were rare. The study was aimed to evaluate a 3D hydrodynamic model, ELCOM, in Daecheong Reservoir for simulating heat fluxes and stratification processes under hydrological years of 2001, 2006, 2008, and to assess the impact of internal wave on the reservoir mixing. The model showed satisfactory performance in simulating the water temperature profiles: the absolute mean errors at R3 (Hoenam) and R4 (Dam) sites were in the range of $1.38{\sim}1.682^{\circ}C$. The evaporative and sensible heat losses through the reservoir surface were maximum during August and January, respectively. The net heat flux ($H_n$) was positive from February to September, while the stratification formed from May and continued until September. Instant vertical mixing was observed in the reservoir during strong wind events at R4, and the model reasonably reproduced the mixing events. A digital low-pass filter and zero crossing method was used to evaluate the potential impact of wind-driven internal wave on the reservoir mixing. The results indicated that most of the wind events occurred in 2001, 2006, 2008 were not enough to develop persistent internal wave and effective mixing in the reservoir. ELCOM is a suitable 3D model for supporting water quality management of the deep and stratified reservoirs.

• Journal of Environmental Science International
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• v.10 no.5
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• pp.337-342
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• 2001

The Rondonia Boundary Layer Experiment (RBLE-II) was conceived to collect data the atmospheric boundary layer over two representative surface in the Amazon region of Brazil; tropical forest and a deforested, pasture area. The present study deals with the observations of atmospheric boundary layer growth and decay. Although the atmospheric boundary layer measurements made in RBLE-II were not made simultaneously over the two different surface types, some insights can be gained from analysing and comparing with their structure. The greater depth of the nocturnal boundary layer at the forest site may be due to influence of mechanical turbulence. The pasture site is aerodynamically smoother and so the downward turbulent diffusion will be much pasture than over the forest. The development of the convective boundary layer is stronger over the pasture than over the forest. The influence of the sensible heat flux is important but may be not enough to explain the difference completely. It seems that energy advection may occur from the wet and colder(forest) to the dry and warmer area(pasture), rapidly breaking up the nocturnal inversion. Such advection can explain the abrupt growth of the convective boundary layer at the pasture site during the early morning.

• KIEAE Journal
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• v.14 no.3
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• pp.79-86
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• 2014

Studies have shown that the thermal performance of buildings changes depending on the year of construction completion. It leads to increased energy consumption of buildings and significant financial burden on users. Thus, this study has calculated the thermal insulation performance of 86 apartments quantitatively, using temperature difference ratio and sensible heat flux. Also, energy consumption characteristics depending on the year of construction completion and thermal insulation performance were analyzed by comparatively analyzing the results of insulation performance evaluation and heating costs. The analysis results are as follows. As for thermal insulation performance, it was around 70% lower in the apartments completed before 1985, compared to apartments completed after 2010. As for heating costs, the apartments with the highest heating cost incurred 1.5 higher heating cost than the apartment with the lowest heating cost. In terms of the insulation performance evaluation, the difference was 2.5-fold.

• Proceedings of the Korea Water Resources Association Conference
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• 2019.05a
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• pp.103-103
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• 2019

본 연구에서는 Terra MODIS 위성영상과 Mapping Evapotranspiration at high Resolution with Internalized Calibration (METRIC) 모형을 이용하여 2012년부터 2017년까지 한반도 전국의 증발산량을 산정하고 플럭스 타워 실측 증발산량과 비교하였다. METRIC은 전 세계에 널리 적용된 바 있는 에너지 수지 기반의 Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) 모형의 개념과 기술을 기반으로 현열(Sensible Heat Flux) 추정 모듈을 개선한 모형이다. 본 연구에서 METRIC 모형은 기존 C#으로 개발되어 있던 SEBAL 코드에서 현열 추정 모듈을 수정하였고 연산 속도 개선을 위해 Python으로 재작성하였다. METRIC 모형의 위성 자료로 Terra MODIS 위성의 MOD13A2(16day, 1km) NDVI, MOD11A1(Daily, 1km) Land Surface Temperature (LST) 및 MCD43A3(Daily, 500m) Albedo를 구축하였으며 500m 공간해상도의 Albedo는 1000m 해상도로 resample하여 활용하였다. 기상자료는 기상청 기상관측소의 풍속, 풍속측정높이, 습도, 10분 간격 이슬점 온도, 일사량 자료를 위성 자료와 같은 공간해상도로 내삽(Interpolation)하여 구축하였다. 모형결과 검증을 위해 국내 플럭스 타워 (설마천, 청미천, 덕유산) 증발산량 관측 자료와의 결정계수(Coefficient of determination, $R^2$), RMSE(Root mean square error) relative RMSE (RMSE%), Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) 및 IOA(Index of Agreement)를 산정하고, 기존 SEBAL 모형 결과와의 비교를 통해 본 모형의 개선점을 보이고자 한다.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture
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• v.40 no.6
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• pp.190-197
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• 2012

The purpose of this study was to evaluate thermal environment and heat budget of light thin layer green roof through an experiment in order to quantify its heat budget. Two concrete model boxes($1.2m(W){\times}1.2m(D){\times}1.0m(H)$) were constructed: One experiment box with Zoysia japonica planted on substrate depth of 10cm and one control box without any plant. Between June 6th and 7th, 2012, outside climatic conditions(air temperature, relative humidity, wind direction, wind speed), evapotranspiration, surface and ceiling temperature, heat flux, and heat budget of the boxes were measured. Daily maximum temperature of those two days was $29.4^{\circ}C$ and $30^{\circ}C$, and daily evapotranspiration was $2,686.1g/m^2$ and $3,312.8g/m^2$, respectively. It was found that evapotranspiration increased as the quantity of solar radiation increased. A surface and ceiling temperature of those two boxes was compared when outside air temperature was the greatest. and control box showed a greater temperature in both cases. Thus it was found that green roof was effective in reducing temperature. As results of heat budget analysis, heat budget of a green roof showed a greater proportion of net radiation and latent heat while heat budget of the control box showed a greater proportion of sensible heat and conduction heat. The significance of this study was to analyze heat budget of green roof temperature reduction. As substrate depth and types, species and seasonal changes may have influences on temperature reduction of green roof, further study is necessary.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.88 no.1
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• pp.38-46
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• 1999

Canopy structure conductances of a Norway spruce forest in the Solling Hills(Central Germany) and Central Forest Biosphere Reserve(320km to the north-west from Moscow) were derived from LE(latent heat flux) and H(sensible heat flux) fluxes measured(by Eddy correlation technique and energy balance method) and modelled(by one dimensional non-steady-state) SVAT(soil-vegetation-atmosphere-transfer) model(SLODSVAT) using a rearranged Penman-Monteith equation("Big-leaf" approximation) during June 1996. They were compared with canopy stomatal conductances estimated by consecutive intergrating the stomatal conductance of individual needles over the whole canopy("bottom-up" approach) using SLODSVAT model. The result indicate a significant difference between the canopy surface conductances derived from measured and modelled fluxes("top-down" approach) and the stomatal conductances modelled by the SLODSVAT("bottom-up" approach). This difference was influenced by some nonphysiological factors within the forest canopy(e.g. aerodynamic and boundary layer resistances, radiation budget, evapotranspiration from the forest understorey). In general, canopy surface conductances derived from measured and modelled fluxes exceeded canopy stomatal conductance during the whole modelled period, The contribution of the understorey's evapotranspiration to the total forest evapotranspiration was small (up to 5-9% of the total LE flux) and was not depended on total radiation balance of forest canopy. Ignoring contribution of the understorey's evapotranspiration resulted in an overestimation of the canopy surface conductance for a spruce forest up to 2mm/s(about 10-15%).