• Journal of architectural history
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• v.18 no.6
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• pp.103-126
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• 2009

This study aims to discover historical trends and change of form of all stupas in India with observation of field study that is as direct as possible, by classifying, analyzing, and synthesizing the stupas. Study of Indian stupa in Korea has a number of shortcomings since only introductory partial approach has been made in order to seek the origin of Korean pagoda. This study also aims to correct errors of stupa terminology in Chinese character committed by misinterpretation of Hindi language which was established by precedent Japanese scholars several decades ago. Piled-up stupas were totally destroyed by pagans, therefore their remains tell us only of structure, material, sizeand disposition. However remains of carved stone at torana and drum give us clues as to the original form of stupa and worshipping activity, as well as change to a more luxurious form. Many rock cave stupas of India show us both simple forms matching the ascetic age of early Buddhism and luxurious changes in Mahayanan era introducing us to statues of Buddha. Indians recovered the spheric form of 'anda,' a Hindi term meaning cosmic egg, from the hemispheric form of the piled-up stupa. Therefore we might discard the erratic term of 'bokbal', which means an upset vessel. Railings and parasols became main factors of stupa design. Carved railings around stupa became a sign of divinity. Serious worshipping activity made drums long or high and created multi-embossed stripes. Bases of circular drums of some cave stupas changed their shapes to rectangular or octagonal. Single parasols became multiparasols of affluent flowerlike curved stems on carved stupa. Multistoried, elongated and high parasols of Gandhara stupas are closely related to such factors as diverse changes of form in Indian subcontinent. Four-sided torana gate and ayaka column of the circular form of original stupas suggest the rectangular form of subsequent East Asian pagoda, and higher and wider base of Indian stupas became the origin of East Asian rectangular pagoda.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Costume
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• v.5
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• pp.13-22
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• 1981

The stone caves in Korea, though they were first influenced by Chinese cave temples, were not made same with their predecessors in style. Nearly all Korean stone caves are the simulated ones built artificially, and they are divided into the following: A. The caves that were made up with several pieces of natural rocks with some wood works done over them to cover the open spaces between the rocks. B. Wood works were added in front of the rock-cut images of Buddha in order to construct the cave. C. The men-made caves Suk-kul-am in Kyung-ju is well-known among the above kind of the caves. In short, Korean stone caves have their distinction in which they were inspired by the Indian and Chinese examples and developed their own styles to meet the specific conditions and restraints of the Korean mountains. The extant Silla cave temples are classified in the following four groups: 1) The type of Shin-sun-sa(神仙寺) at Kyung-ju 2) The type of Ka-heung-ri cave(可興里) at Yong-ju(榮州) 3) The type of Kun-wi cave(軍威) 4) The type of Suk-kul-am(石窟庵) at Kyung-ju

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.21 no.4
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• pp.7-24
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• 2012

The Buddhist cave temple carved into the rock provides a large space for the ritual in general in which a structure of Stupa is built in the center of the space purely for religious worship empty of Sarira, and the temple is formed around this Stupa. Relief-Stupa of the cave temple indicates the similar shape that of Relief-religious worship of flat land temple. However, there appears a small difference in representation since the background of formation of the cave temple differs in that of flat land temple. Specially, Caitya Stupa of currently existing cave temples have been damaged to lose of their original shape only possible to be analyzed the stylistic development through Relief-Stupa from which the characteristic of Stupa could be understood. The early cave temple could be characterized with a balanced structure consists of upturn bowl, steeple stone with simple drum & Hamikawasnagae, in which it appears strongly the detail factor characteristics of drum & steeple of having system with Caitya Stupa. In the post cave temple, the subject of worship moved to statue of Buddha due to the influence of Gandhara, Mathura art which reduced the importance of Stupa. This illustrates in Relief-stupa as well the style change as well as changes in detail factor. The sculpture appeared at the limited location either the wall of Caitya shrine or pillar in vihara cave with stronger decorative meaning. Contrast to the Relief Stupa of early flat land temples or the cave temples mentioned above sculptured with symbolism, however, the post cave temple showed the relief structure based on the plan of flat plan.